RESEARCHERSPage

TOPICAL STRUCTURE ANALYSIS

Many case studies have been designed and conducted to examine writing
components, such as cohesion and coherence, grammar and sentence structure,
and lexical and semantic features of rhetorical composition. According to
Ulla Connor (Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-
language writing, 1996) cohesion is determined by lexical and grammatical
intersentential relationships, while coherence focuses on the semantic
relationships within texts.

A strategy for determining effective discourse coherence which has recently
come to light is topical structure analysis. Used as a device to evaluate text
coherence, topical structure analysis looks at how the discourse topic and
subtopics are maneuvered to produce clarity in compositional works. Topical
structure analysis was originally developed in 1978 by Liisa Lautamatti, a
Finnish text linguist drawing from the theory of "theme" and "rheme" of the
Prague school of linguistics. "Theme", or topic, is what the sentence is about
(main idea), while "rheme", or comment" is what is being said about the topic.
For example, in the sentence, "The farmer went out to feed his horses", 'the
farmer' is the topic and the predicate, 'went out to feed his horses', comments
on the topic. The comment in one sentence becomes the topic for the following
sentence. In this way, composition becomes coherent as the discourse topic is
maintained throughout the composition. Lautamatti's topical structure analysis
focuses on the semantic relationships that exist between sentence topics and
the discourse topics, progressively building meaning. Lautamatti identified
three progressions as follows:

a) parallel progression (the topics are semantically co-referential);

b) sequential progression (the topics are always different and come out
of the comment of the previous sentence; and

c) extended parallel progression (a parallel progression temporarily
interrupted by a sequential progression).

Connor describes "good prose" as having a good ratio of sequential
progression to extended parallel progression. Connor regards topical structure
analysis as an effective self-administered revision strategy for students to use in
conjunction with quality teaching instruction and teacher/peer comments.

In deciding on the topic of each sentence a certain amount of intuition is
needed and may not be thought of as being the same by two different people,
depending on their perspectives. The following example helps to clarify the
basis of topical structure analysis through four steps:

     Step 1. Number each sentence in the passage.
     Step 2. Highlight the topic (word or phrase) in each sentence.
     Step 3. Draw a diagram of the passage sentences.
     Step 4. Check for coherence of ideas and make changes accordingly.

Example:

Sample 1: Parallel progression

     (1) Chocolates are a national craving. (2) Records show they are sold in
      huge quantities -- 11.2 pounds per capita per year. (3) Designer chocolates
      often sell for nearly $30/lb. (4) It is obvious that these candies are America's
      number one choice.

           1. Chocolates
           2. they
           3. Designer chocolates
           4. these candies

     Sample 2: Sequential progression

     (1) Computer interviews are used by market researchers to assess product
     demand. (2) Using these, many different products are analyzed. (3) For
     example, people may be asked about detergents.

          1. Computer interviews
          2.     products
          3.        detergents

Sample 3: Extended parallel progression

     (1) Body language varies from culture to culture. (2) To say yes, Americans
     nod their heads up and down. (3) Japanese and Italians use the same nod to
     say no. (4) Body language is an important skill for international managers.

          1. Body language
          2.     Americans
          3.          Japanese and Italians
          4. Body language

Recent research studies in linguistics and applied linguistics have begun to
emphasize the connection between reading and writing, attempting to define
the process of the transference of skills from the former to the latter. Therefore,
it is important to ensure that students are given "good" prose as models in
acquiring writing skills from analyzing and absorbing a variety of written
passages.

Applications of coherence theories as in Connor and Johns (1990) suggest
that such application can improve writing instruction. One particularly promising
attempt to describe discourse-based coherence, which is applicable directly to
writing instruction, is "topical structure analysis." In an ESL context, Schneider
and Connor (In "Analyzing topical structure in ESL essay," in Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 12, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 420.)
used a sample of essays written for the TOEFL's Test of Written English (TWE)
and found that topical structure analysis correlated well with readers' judgments
of writing quality. Figure 1 displays a coherence diagram for a highly rated essay
in the sample. The results of the study showed that more highly rated essays, like
the one shown in the figure, have the following characteristics: a high proportion
of sequential progression (see sentences 2-18) and an extended parallel
progression (sentence 21), which helps pull the essay back to its main theme.

     (1) There often exists in our society a certain dichotomy of art and science.
(2) Supporters of either disciplines sometimes are of the opinion that one is
more valuable to society than the other. (3) But is this a fair judgement to
make? (4) Should a judgement be made at all?
     (5) I believe that art and science sustain and support each other. (6) The
developments and knowledge we gain from science can be used to give us a
better understanding of our art forms and even improve existing styles and
techniques. (7) On the other hand, art in its continuous search for new ways
to express beauty, often provides the impetus and support for scientific
research.
     (8) An example of a discipline where art and science interact is
architecture. (9) The architectural discipline makes use of forms, shapes,
lines, and other aesthetic components of art. (10) It also involves principles
of physics, engineering, and understanding of chemistry in order to build a
sound structure and design. (11) Where will society be without the structures
and buildings produced from the interplay of art and science?
     (12) Gymnastics is also a good example of such an interplay.
(13) Gymnasts strive to perfect the beauty of human from and grace.
(14) However, this will not be possible without some understanding of
biology, physics, or physiology.
     (15) The examples are endless. (16) Even art forms which many consider
"pure" would not have advanced without science. Painting benefits from
chemistry, (18) theater benefits from breakthroughs in acoustics,
(19) and the list goes on. (20) Einstein himself was a lover of may art forms.
     (21) Science and art are both integral and inseparable products of society.
(22) They come from the same harmonious body of universal knowledge.
(23) Both are of tremendous and equal value to humankind.
1. a certain dichotomy
2.   supporters                       (sequential progression)
3.     a fair judgement
4.     a judgement             (parallel progression)
5.         art and science
6.            the developments and knowledge
7.               art
8.                  a discipline
9.                  the architectural discipline
10.                 it
11.                    society
12.                        gymnastics
13.                            gymnasts
14.                                some understanding
15.                                    the examples
16.                                       art forms
17.                                          paintings
18.                                              theater
19.                                    the list
20.                                                 Einstein
21.     science and art
22.     they
23.     both   (extended parallel progression)

Figure 1.     Sample highly scored essay with its topical structure diagram (In
"Analyzing topical structure in ESL essay," by Schneider ad Connor, in Studies
in Second Language Acquisition, 12, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 420.)

Let's look at other highly scored essays (Test Score 5 & 6) respectively:

TWE Test Essay Question

In some cultures, marriages are arranged by parents. In other cultures, a person's
company helps the employee to find a future husband or wife. State whether you
believe arranged marriages are better than non-arranged marriages. Support your
position with examples.

Test Score 5

     (1) According to Webster's Dictionary, the word "marriage" is defined as "the
legal union of two people in wedlock." (2) Yet, there is no specific description
about the formation of this matrimony, consequently this alliance can be arranged
by lovers themselves or others. (3) In Chinese society, our ancestors believed in the
significance of arranging marriage, for they consider the social rank,
background, and "destiny match," which implies that if two people's destiny (fate)
cannot match them then harmony and wealth will vanish. (4) Thus, arranged
marriages seemed reasonable and necessary; however, there were many tragedies
with this custom since nuptials dominate two distinct souls and minds, without any
mutual understanding, (5) it is hard to build any reciprocal interaction.
(6) Therefore, I personally disagree arranged marriages.
     (7) On the other hand, there are companies in certain countries that arrange
marriages for their employees. (8) It seems that most employees require such help.
(9) An "arranged marriage" is the euphemism, the truth is dominated association.
(10) How can we decide another individual's espousal life? (11) It's dubious
whether an arranged marriage is the perfect solution for celibacy; moreover,
how can we understand another individual's needs? (12) This legal union
relationship should last eternally and happily, so the two mutual adults should
have rights to make their own decision. (13) In colonial days, American colonist
married the Indian girl through arrangement, for two ethnical groups negotiated
the peace conference. (14) Yet, white treated the Indian girl as an object --
show her as unique animal who has different facial features and colors in public.
(15) It's a cruel fact, not only the girl suffered, the white man also felt unhappy.
(16) There were a lot of similar stories that happened in each dynasty in Chinese
history. (17) Eventually, the two individuals sacrificed their love under the
arranged marriage system. (18) Who should be responsible?
     (19) It's another new revolution time, there are various systems emerge in our
society. (20) That does not mean we have to alter everything, yet we can revise.
(21) Arranged marriage is not a perfect system, we can see the tragedies that
occured before obviously. (22) Why should we force others into this wedlock?
1. marriage
2. this matrimony    (parallel progression)
3.     significance of arranging marriage (sequential progression)
4.        arranged marriages
5.           any reciprocal interaction
6.               disagree arranged marriages
7.        companies that arrange marriages
8.            most employees
9.        dominated association
10.           decide another individual's espousal life
11.       arranged marriage
12. legal union relationship
13.       American colonist
14.             white treated the Indian girl...
15.                 a cruel fact
16.             similar stories
17.                 two individuals sacrificed...
18.                     Who should be responsible
19.           various systems
20.              we can revise
21.       arranged marriages
22.           this wedlock
Comment: This paper is well organized as it follows the progression patterns.
                 The writer uses detail to illustrate the thesis statement.
                 However, the writer restates his position against arranged
                 marriages by raising a question "Why should we force others into
                 this wedlock?", which is an acceptably expected but weak conclusion.

Test Score 6

     (1) In old Chinese societies, marriages were arranged by parents and a "red-
lady" (go-between). (2) The arrangement was based on wealth, profession and
the birthdate. (3) Both the bride and the bridegroom would not see each other
until the wedding day but then had to spend their whole lives together without
regret or divorce. (4) Most of us believe that it would be a tragedy for two
strangers to get married without love or even knowing each other. (5) However,
in today's world where free marriage is popular and is the norm, it can be seen
that these marriages often lead to conflict and are even sometimes much worse
than the marriages of the past.
     (6) Some people are misled into believing that non-arranged marriages
could have harmony and would last. (7) On the contrary, there is a much higher
divorce rate compared to the past. (8) Although we could deny this because
we could not get divorced as easily in the past as nowadays, it is believed that
arranged marriages are better. (9) Marriage is a unit function of men and
women in a society. (10) Not only do the two persons concerned get involved,
but also the families of both couples.
     (11) From the social and economic point of view, arranged marriages are
better for society. (12) For example, if the families of both couples are in the
same kind of business, they will have the same interest that will help to unify the
marriage. (13) They will be discussing the same topic together and even
produce more creative ideas, instead of having two totally different families in
style, class and wealth trying to get along with each other. (14) Not being of the
same class might lead to daily misunderstanding and future quarrels. (15) It
might also lead to different points of view threatening the state of harmony.
(16) Having marriages arranged by experienced parents could minimize this
problem.
1. marriages were arranged
2. arrangement    (parallel progression)
3.    both the bride and the bridegroom   (sequential progression)
4.        tragedy
5.           free marriage
6.           non-arranged marriages
7.               higher divorce rate
8. arranged marriages
9.    marriage
10.      the families of both couples
11. arranged marriages
12.    for example
13.       discussing the same topic together and...
14.           daily misunderstanding and...
15.               different points of view
16. marriages arranged    (extended parallel progression)
Comment: This paper has taken a position, justified the position taken, and there is
                 an attempt at summing up the position taken. Besides, this paper
                 follows the progression patterns. Above all, the writer takes the readers
                 back by stating the "marriages arranged" in the first sentence of the first
                 paragraph which corresponds to the "marriages were arranged" in the
                 last sentence of the last paragraph.

(These are actual students responses and so errors are those of the students.)

(These two examples above -- Test Score 5 & 6 are taken from Broukal, Milada &

Flynn, Kathleen. (1994). The Heinle & Heinle TOEFL Test Assistant: Test of Written

English (TWE). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.)

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