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Indians before the arrival of Columbus- hunter-gatherers until corn; then they settled down into communitites; Pueblo culture (one of the first): irrigation; worshipped nature, lived in tribes/clans/families.

John Muir-(1838-1914) American explorer and naturalist; sighted a glacier in Alaska which now bears his name; an authority on forestry and management; visited many countries to study their forestry; helped T. Roosevelt preserve Hetch Hetchy.

Nicholas Biddle-(1786-1844) President of the Bank of the U.S.; autocratic and tyrannical; lent fund when he could make influential friends.

John C. Calhoun-(1782-1880) U.S. rep in 1811 (served 3 terms); he and Clay persuaded House to declare war on Britain in 1812; (1817-25) Secretary of War (Monroe), VP until 1824 (Adams), re-elected in 1824 (Jackson); opposed to high tariff; persuaded South in 1832 to nullify tariff acts of 1828 and 1832; resigned, proposed compromise to nullification.

Henry Clay- influential American politician; the "Great Pacificator" (earned with development of 3 compromises); ran for presidential nominee 6 times; ran for President 3 times (never won); devised the "American System" (protective tariff and support of internal improvement).

Carpetbaggers- sleazy northerners who packed all their belongings in a carpet-bag (hence their collective name) and went south in search of power and profit.

Scalawags- southerners (sometimes former Whigs and Unionists) accused of plundering the southern states' treasuries through political influence.

Robert Morris-(1734-1806) financier; went to the U.S. and became prominent in American commerce; politically active in the revolution; member of Continental Congress (1776-1778); signed Declaration of Independence; supervised finances of war; in 1781 est. Bank of North America; lost his money in land speculation and spent 3 years in debtor's prison.

William Jennings Bryan-(1860-1925) known as a great orator; ran for president many times and never won; delivered "Cross of Gold" speech; founded Commoner (paper) in 1901; Secretary of State under Wilson (1913-1915), resigned; helped reform women's suffrage, income tax, popular election of senators, and Prohibition.

Jefferson vs. Hamilton (agrarian vs. city)- Jefferson: for states' rights, no government support; no national bank - leave the debt alone; too strong central govm't. = tyrannical; Hamilton: pro-federal government; protective tariff, fund the national debt; for a national bank, whiskey excise.

Political Bosses (Tammany Hall)- ran cities in the early 1900's; ran political races by sending troublemakers away (Roosevelt for VP instead of governor of NY); Tammany Hall founded by antifederalist William Mooney; gained rep for corrupt practices and opposition to reform; gained power w/ rise of Boss Tweed.

Lost Generation- refers to a group of American writers who lived primarily in Paris durning 1920's and 30's; bitter about WWI experiences, disillusioned with American societyl seen as expatirots; never a formal literary movement, but all were influential writers: Hemingway, Fitzgerald, William Carlos Williams.

George Fitzhugh- wrote "Sociology for the South" and "Cannibal's All!"; alarmed northerners and roused southerners to take new and higher ground in defense of slavery; said ALL-SLAVE or ALL-FREE: slavery could only surbibe if capitalism died; opposed secession until last minute, sank into obscurity post-war.

George Grenville- prime minister of Britain, hated by the colonists; said the Navigation Acts, Stamp Acts, Intolerable Acts were all just; said Parliament's power was supreme and undivided, that American colonists were represented there as Englishmen: "virtual representation".

Martin Luther King, Jr.- assasinated April 4, 1968; civil rights leader who advocated peaceful (nonviolent) resistance to oppression; "Letter from Birmingham Jail" promotes the doctrine of civil disobedience (Aug. 28, 1963); "I Have A Dream...." inspired and reaffirmed the need for civil equality (Aug. 1963); March on Washington -- "Million Man March".

NOW (National Organization for Women)- est. 1966 as civil rights advocacy group for women; opposed appointment of Clarence Thomas; pro-choice; Betty Freidann? The Feminine Mystique -- feminist novel, Rachel Carson Silent Spring -- environmental argument; early 70's - proposed the ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) to the Constitution -fails, but but very close.

Gifford Pinchot- under TR, dead of U.S. Forestry; vs. John Muir: conservation instead of preservation; fired by Taft over Ballinger (accused Ballinger of selling American land to private businesses); National Forest Service = Department of Agriculture now.