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Rose Growing
Hybrid
Tea Roses, accompanied at length by the Floribunda and Grandiflora Roses so
influenced by them, have been at the fore of rose progress for about a century
now—so long that their forebears and predecessors have become, to many rosarians,
mere footnotes rather than what they should be, valid candidates for equal
interest. The modern "English Roses" by David Austin (modeled on the past) and
the ever-increasing groundswell of interest in old roses proper perhaps make it
desirable for all rosarian netlings to gain some quick familiarity with the
heritage of the rose. We therefore present the following thumbnail notes as
something of a starting point, hoping that wiser heads will supply the necessary
corrections or variant information, and hoping as well that those interested in
more detail will check out the many fine books which deal with this at greater
length.
General History.
Various wild roses grow throughout the Northern Hemisphere at sites
ranging from riparian and swampy all the way to those of the desert. Two
geographical groupings which, at first, developed separately, have had—both in
their separation and in their ultimate combination—the greatest impact on rose
history: The European/Mediterranean group of species and their hybrids, and the
Oriental group of species and their hybrids. The European roses are primarily
the following: Gallicas, Albas, Damasks, Damask Perpetuals, Centifolias, and
Mosses. The mainstream Oriental groups are Chinas and Teas. The European
sorts—with one important exception—have only one season of bloom per year, while
the Orientals repeat bloom more or less continuously. The European/Mediterranean
roses or their forebears have been grown and loved since the earliest days of
history (and no doubt before). Wreaths of Damask-like roses have been found in
Egyptian tombs; seemingly the same rose—also called 'Rosa
Sancta' (the Holy Rose)—has been grown down to our own days in holy places in
eastern Africa. Frescoes painted during the heyday of the Minoan culture on
Crete show roses. The festivals both sacred and profane of the classical Greeks
included roses, as did those of the Romans. The Romans were so sophisticated
that they developed a hot-house technology which allowed them to "force" roses
into more bloom; they also imported roses from Egypt. The garden roses of these
most ancient times in Europe and the Mediterranean were seemingly the Damasks,
the Gallicas, and perhaps the Albas.
During the Middle Ages, these roses retained a certain religious use,
not only as decorations and adjuncts to (now Christian) holy festivals, but also
as denizens of the medicinal gardens. Their medicinal associations as well as
the simple human delight in their fragrance brought about the
distillation-of-rose-essence industry, which still has local importance in a few
areas of Europe (formerly France, now primarily Bulgaria).
With the end of the Middle Ages and the rise of the merchant class,
commerce in horticultural material began to flourish. Due to their fleet of
trading ships and the peculiarities of their geography, the Netherlands became
(and continue) a great center of horticultural business. Alongside their trade
in Tulips, Hyacinths, Carnations, and the like, came something new in Occidental
rose progress: systematic growing of roses from seed (previously, roses had
primarily been propagated from cuttings, suckers, runners, and possibly to a
small degree by grafts). This opened up the possibility inherent in sexual
reproduction: Variation. One of the great holes in knowledge of rose history
concerns specifics about what roses they used in this, and how they went about
it—but, at any rate, whereas previously only some tens of rose cultivars
existed, now, in the period up to about 1810, one or two hundred became
available, indeed a whole new group, the Centifolias, arising from the complex
and possibly arbitrary breeding of the Dutch.
Around 1800, the French became interested in roses and the rose
industry. This interest was fueled by the French Empress Josephine, who
surrounded herself with adepts in all fields of interest to her—one was
Botany—while she consoled herself at the palace of Malmaison over her divorce
from her beloved Napoleon. At this palace, she collected all the available sorts
of roses, and encouraged the breeding and hybridizing of new ones. Spurred by
this imperial patronage, several French breeders—notably Dupont and Descemet—went
to work with a vengeance, developing several hundred new cultivars in the
European groups (Gallicas, Damasks, Albas, Centifolias . . . ). Descemet indeed
very carefully kept notes of the results of particular crosses, and may be said
to have been the first in the West to have certainly practiced controlled
cross-breeding on a large scale, though earlier others —notably Schwarzkopf in
Hesse, Germany—may have done so as well.
We must turn, however, to the Orient for a moment, leaving Europe in
the throes of Napoleonic war and rose-breeding. There is alas little information
on Oriental—or, more specifically, Chinese—rose breeding. One finds indications
that roses were favored, though perhaps not to the extent that the Peony, the
Chrysanthemum, or the Camellia were. What is important to note, however, is that
during the period 1750-1824, several China Roses and Tea Roses made their
appearance in the Occident. These were continuous-blooming, but not hardy. Their
introduction into the Occident at length completely revolutionized rose
progress.
The French, though their Emperor had fallen and Josephine was dead,
continued their efforts with both the old material and now with the new. Due to
political problems, Descemet had to flee France, but an ex-soldier of Napoleon's
army, wounded in Italy, now prosperous as a hardware-shop owner, indulged his
interest in roses and bought what remained of Descemet's nursery and breeding
notes after the site of the nursery was sacked by invading English troops. This
was Jean-Pierre Vibert, whose intelligence and industriousness working from
1816-1850 had a lasting influence on the French rose industry.
The crosses with the new material were made as work continued in all
groups of roses. Never before the 1820's had such a diversity of disparate roses
been available--and never since. Almost every available species, no matter how
obscure, had varieties and subvarieties of varying color or form due to breeding
or sports. A sport of the Centifolia, the Moss Rose, had appeared a few decades
before, and now began to spread its unique array of cultivars over the rose
scene as the breeders worked with it. As the 1820's became the 1830's, however,
interest was concentrated on the breeding between the Oriental roses and the
Europeans. Due to the laws of genetics, the first progeny of crosses between
once-bloomers and repeat-bloomers were once-blooming. As they were crossed with
each other, however, and then back to the Chinas and Teas, repeat-blooming
hybrids began to appear. These were crossed with Damask Perpetuals. The 1830's
were a time of ferment and experimentation with these.
Meantime, on an island in the Indian Ocean (though there is some
debate about this), a new cross between a China and a Damask Perpetual appeared.
This was the Bourbon Rose. Its appearance at this time made it a part of the
breeding going on primarily in France (though efforts were also underway in
England to a lesser extent).
The outcome of all these crosses jelled in the 1840's into the group
called "Hybrid Perpetuals"—a name which implied to the people of the time
"Damask Perpetuals which have been hybridized with Other Sorts." This group,
taking in cultivars of all colors and forms, and (best of all to the people of
the era) at least somewhat re-blooming and hardy, overwhelmed almost all the
other groups. Interest in the old European sorts waned; they were gradually set
aside, kept mainly as sentimental remembrances of the past by a few devotees.
The idea of rose shows and competitions was on the rise at this time. These
events began for better or worse to standardize the concept of what a rose
blossom should look like, and made many concentrate on the rose as a producer of
exhibition items rather than a decorative plant for the garden. Breeding
experimentation continued. Seed of the original, rather weakly-growing, Teas was
sown; and by selection of successive crops, a more robust sort of Tea resulted.
As the search to widen the range of Hybrid Perpetuals continued, they were
crossed with the Teas producing a group which came to be known as Hybrid Teas.
Efforts along these lines really got underway seriously in the 1870's, though
there had been a few earlier such crosses as well.
But, still experimentation continued. A strong yellow rose was
wanted. The Teas had light yellows among their number, but these had a tendency
to fade, and the plants were not as robust as people had become accustomed to
from the Hybrid Perpetuals. A deep yellow species, R. fœtida,
had been used to produce a Tea 'Ma Capucine' by the breeder Levet in 1871, but
the plant was weak-growing, discouraging further work. In the 1880's and 1890's,
several breeders in different countries, working independently, began using
fœtida in trial breeding. One of them, Pernet-Ducher, attended to the problem;
and, after a long series of experiments with Teas, Hybrid Teas, Hybrid
Perpetuals, and (finally) R. fœtida, produced
offspring around 1900 from a cross of the HP 'Antoine Ducher' and
R. fœtida which had a yellow/gold/coral tone that seemed to
promise much. Further developments from this cross were called "Pernetianas,"
and at length they were combined with the original Hybrid Teas to produce what
might be called "Hybrid Hybrid Teas"—the Hybrid Teas of today.
2. GALLICA ROSES.
These are selections bred from the "French Rose," R.
gallica. A Gallica will typically have a stocky plant, an open
blossom which shows the stamens and is held upright, usually in colors varying
from rose-red. Variations, however, are almost limitless as well as subtle, and
all degrees of height and blossom may be found, from near singles to full
doubles, from blush pinks to maroon, from clear homogeneous colors to cloudy,
striped, and/or spotted blossoms. The plants are easily propagated by their
runners or suckers when on their own roots. Some examples are 'D'Aguesseau', 'Camaieux',
'Tuscany', 'Versicolor'.
3. ALBA ROSES.
As is so often the case with roses, the precise origin of the Alba
group is much debated; possibly R. canina x
R. damascena, or R. corymbifera
x R. gallica, or . . . ? Albas typically make
large, healthy shrubs with fragrant white or light pink blossoms, usually in
few-flowered clusters. They have particular associations with the Middle Ages
and castle gardens. 'Great Maiden's Blush', 'Semiplena', 'Jeanne d'Arc', 'Königin
von Dannemark', 'Pompon Blanc Parfait'.
4. DAMASK ROSES.
Damask Roses are supposed to be from a hybridization between
R. gallica and R. phœnicia
which occurred in Asia Minor and became distributed throughout Syria and the
Near East and Middle East generally. The Crusaders—according to
tradition—brought it back to Europe from Damascus (hence the name) in 1254.
However, there is a most daunting and seemingly impenetrable fog around
R. damascena. References can be found to "the common
Damask" as late as the 1820's, and yet what an author is referring to by this
term remains elusive. It indeed frequently seems that "the Common Damask" is
rather a Damask Perpetual! Worse, cultivars which we today consider as defining
the group—`Leda', perhaps, and 'Félicité Hardy' (better known as 'Mme.
Hardy')—seem to have been hybrids. 'Belle Couronnée' (better known as 'Celsiana'),
a most beautiful and popular rose, is possibly "typical" Damask; and yet, even
it has its mystery (current research affirms that the "pre-1750" date usually
put forward is whimsical). Even 'York and Lancaster', frequently considered to
be a sport of the original (red?) Damask, is supposed by one authority to be an
Alba on the basis of a sporting back to something like the Alba 'Semiplena'! The
cultivar used for the rose oil industry in Bulgaria, 'Trigintipetala',
supposedly a long-ago import from Turkey, is perhaps dependably
R. damascena . . . . That said, characteristics associated with
our concept of what a Damask should look like are: upright frequently arching
canes, grayish-green somewhat rugose somewhat hirsute leaves, large fragrant
blossoms in few-flowered clusters, delicate in appearance, and ranging in color
from white to deep pink depending on the cultivar. 'Ville de Bruxelles', 'Mme.
Zoëtmans', 'Kazanlyk'.
5. CENTIFOLIA ROSES.
The genetic background of the much-beloved Centifolia roses is also
much debated. Some have reported wild Centifolias from various sites in Europe
and Asia, others try to piece together mosaics of species to make the Centifolia
a complex hybrid. They were much featured in the paintings of the Dutch masters.
Typically, a mature Centifolia will be 4-5 feet high, leafy, and bear lush,
fragrant, pink blossoms which not only nod in themselves, but which also
frequently cause the plant's branches to nod gracefully under their weight.
Colors of various cultivars range from white to deep rose-red, and there are
striped and spotted ones as well. 'Common Centifolia', 'Bullata', 'Des Peintres',
'La Noblesse', 'Tour de Malakoff', 'Unique'.
6. CENTIFOLIA MOSSES.
These roses, originally a sport of the Centifolia, bear on their
flower-stems and sepals a mutation of the glands making it appear as if a green
or reddish-brown moss were growing there, adding a unique delicacy to the buds.
In this group can be found some deep crimsons, lacking among the regular
Centifolias; this is possibly due to some hybridization involving crimson China
roses. 'Common Moss', 'Gloire des Mousseux', 'William Lobb', 'Deuil de Paul
Fontaine', 'Striped Moss'.
7. CENTIFOLIA POMPONS
There are also several Centifolias which are to a greater or lesser
degree miniatures or dwarfs, with small, charming blossoms full of petals. 'De
Meaux', 'Rosier des Dames', 'Spong's', `Little Gem'.
8. AGATHE ROSES.
One of the least-known groups, Agathes are seemingly complex hybrids
with a very strong influence from the Damasks and possibly R.
francofurtana. They are characterized by rather compact, leafy
bushes, usually bearing small to medium sized full, tight blossoms. Due to years
of unfamiliarity, generations of rosarians have listed them sometimes among the
Gallicas, and sometimes among the Damasks. 'Fatime', 'Marie-Louise', 'Majestueuse',
'Bouquet Rose de Vénus', 'Victorine la Couronnée'.
9. TURBINATA ROSES.
The Turbinatas result from a cross called R.
francofurtana (between R. gallica
and R. majalis, a European species.) The main
representative of this group is 'Impératrice Joséphine' with large foliage and
big, wavy blossoms of intense pink. Turbinata roses often have some difficulty
in opening their buds.
10. RUBIGINOSA ROSES.
The Rubiginosa, Eglantine, or Sweetbriar rose is a tall-growing rose
the distinctive characteristic of which is its foliage which, particularly after
a rain, wafts a green-apple scent. The blossoms of the original are single and
pink or white, giving rise to coral-red hips, making quite a show in the Fall. A
number of hybrids were produced in the 1890's by Lord Penzance, much extending
the color-range of the sort, at some expense to the fragrance of the foliage. 'Clémentine',
'Hebe's Lip', 'Lord Penzance', 'Amy Robsart', 'Greenmantle'.
11. CANINA ROSES.
The Canina or Dog Rose is closely related to the above, lacking
however the scented foliage. The hips were considered medicinally effective
against bites from mad dogs, hence the name. The Austro-Hungarian breeder
Geschwind had a great interest in R. canina due
to its hardiness, and produced several hybrids in the latter part of the 19th
century; others have also made sparing use of it in breeding work. 'Una', 'Crême',
'Freya', 'Kiese', 'Theresia'.
12. HEMISPHÆRICA ROSES.
Will the day of R. hemisphærica ever
come? Or is it already past? Known since the 1600's, R.
hemisphærica has much whetted the appetites of rosarians
because of its deep yellow flowers, double in two varieties, its glaucous
foliage, and the difficulty of its culture. It should be tried by those in dry,
Mediterranean-like climates. There have been only three Hemisphæricas:
'Simplex', 'Multiplex', and 'Pompon Jaune'—the lattermost with small double
blossoms, reportedly the most difficult of all.
13. FŒTIDA ROSES.
R. fœtida has long attracted the attention of
horticulturists and botanists because of its bright coloring, and at length
entered into the mainstream by the role it played in the production of the
Pernetiana roses, leading directly into the modern Hybrid Tea. The plant is a
large, arching shrub. R. fœtida itself is
bright yellow, 'Bicolor' is coppery orange on the inside and yellow on the
outside of the petals, 'Persian Yellow' is a double yellow. Several hybrids have
been produced, of which the following are notable: 'Le Rêve', 'Star of Persia',
'Harison's Yellow'. The Pernetiana group of hybrids is covered in a separate
section.
14. PIMPINELLIFOLIA ROSES (including
Spinosissima).
These roses are extremely hardy, have attractive foliage with various
tints in the Fall, and bear sprightly single or double blossoms in most all the
colors roses have, white, pink, red, yellow. Many are very compact, neat-looking
bushes. 'William III', 'William IV', 'Doorenbos Selection', 'Altaïca', 'Marmorata',
'Sulphurea'. Three repeat-blooming cultivars were produced, hybrids with the
Damask Perpetual, one of which is still with us: 'Stanwell Perpetual'.
15. BOURSAULT ROSES.
The Boursaults are of the scandent or climbing habit, and are
traditionally supposed to derive from a Napoleonic-era cross between one of the
earliest Chinas and R. pendulina, an alpine
rose. The blossoms are rather large, come in larger or smaller clusters, appear
early, are in shades of pink and red, and sometimes re-appear later in the
season. The foliage in some sorts colors well in the Fall. 'Mme. de Sancy de
Parabère', 'Morletii', 'Amadis', 'Calypso'.
16. SEMPERVIRENS ROSES.
R. sempervirens is a climbing species from the
Mediterranean area which has glossy, persistent leaves and large clusters of
small white flowers. In the 1820's particularly, several breeders undertook work
with it, most notably Antoine Jacques, who hybridized it with China or Noisette
roses to come up with a series of climbers in shades of pink to white, climbers
which are still used and appreciated today. 'Félicité-Perpétue', 'Adélaïde
d'Orleans', 'Flore', 'Dona Maria'. (The greatly popular Noisette 'Aimée Vibert'
is also an R. sempervirens cross; it is however
placed among the Noisettes because it reblooms.)
to produce a number of similarly tough and hardy climbers, first of
all in the mid-19th century by several American nurserymen whose crosses with
Noisettes, Gallicas, and no one knows what else, gave us the very beautiful
varieties 'Baltimore Belle', 'Gem of the Prairies', 'Eva Corinne', 'Queen of the
Prairies', etc. Later breeders were to add such roses as 'Corporal Johann Nagy',
'Ovid', 'Mrs. F.F. Prentiss', and eventually a series of modern climbers of
which the best known, perhaps, is 'Doubloons'.
18. WICHURAIANA ROSES.
R. wichuraiana is a wide-spreading cluster-flowered
climber/groundcover rose from Japan and the Orient generally. The American Mr.
Horvath—responsible for the 'Doubloons' just mentioned above—began hybridizing
with it immediately upon its appearance in the West in the early 1890's,
crossing it with Polyanthas and Chinas. A person connected with the Barbier
nurseries in France happened to visit, became interested in the results, and got
the similar and highly successful Barbier crosses underway back home (though it
is now thought that the closely-related R. luciæ
was used by the Barbiers for a number of the crosses). Many, many very
meritorious ramblers from these and other breeders were introduced in the
following years, some of the greatest popularity: 'Dorothy Perkins',
'Evangeline', 'May Queen', 'Léontine Gervais', 'Aviateur Blériot'.
19. MULTIFLORA ROSES.
Though a few Multiflora climbers and hybrids had been released early
in the 19th century by such old masters as Vibert ('De la Grifferaie') and
Laffay ('Laure Davoust'), and others appeared now and then for the rest of the
century, the main impetus towards hybridizing with the Oriental
R. multiflora came with the introduction of 'Turner's Crimson
Rambler' in 1893. Over the next twenty-five or so years, dozens and dozens of
Multiflora Ramblers—stiffer, more upright than Wichuraiana Ramblers--were
released, some of them the so-called "blue" ramblers. 'Veilchenblau', 'Bleu
Magenta', 'Caroubier', 'Ghislaine de Féligonde', 'Tausendschön'.
20. DAMASK PERPETUAL ROSES.
This group was the only repeat-blooming one known to the Europeans
until the advent of the China roses. Its origins are misty; but evidently the
first one appeared in Italy around 1580. Several variants sprang into existence
over the next 200 years; and breeding work in earnest began on them in the
1810's. Vibert and his successors in his firm had a very great interest in this
group, and introduced by far the greatest number of them, the last one
('Rembrandt') of their long-pursued line coming out in 1883. They typically have
stocky, healthy, decorative bushes, with the often exquisitely double, fragrant
blossoms nestling in the leaves. There are several races of them: the Biferas,
with tall, arching growth; the Portlands, showing Gallica influence; the
Tous-les-Mois, the typical sort, bushy and compact with tight blossoms; and the
Trianons, tall, vigorous, Hybrid-Perpetual like growth with clusters of flowers.
The colors range from white through all the pinks to deepest red. 'Jacques
Cartier', 'Yolande d'Aragon', 'Portland Rose', 'Rose du Roi', 'Joasine Hanet', 'Marbrée'.
21. CHINA ROSES.
Chinas—selectively bred from R. chinensis—had
been grown in Chinese gardens long before the Occident knew anything about them.
The agent of their first appearance in the West is under some dispute, with
claims being made for Sweden, Britain, and Italy. A pink form and a red form
entered commerce in the West in the 1790's, and breeding quickly got underway,
particularly in France and, to some degree, Italy. The reasons for their quick
popularity were primarily their continuous bloom and, at least initially, the
then-current rage for things Oriental. Their main difficulty was their lack of
cold-hardiness. Chinas typically make, bushy, twiggy plants, often quite
irregular in outline, and range in color from deepest red and maroon through
pink to white. Some hybridized with the Teas show warm tones of yellow, saffron,
salmon, and orange. The China group has long been considered a refuge for "decoratives"
as opposed to exhibition roses; cultivars of Tea parentage which did not show
the blossom-form expected of Teas would be offered as Chinas. 'Cramoisi
Superieur', 'Parsons' Pink China', 'Eugène de Beauharnais', 'Archiduc Charles',
'Ducher', 'Némésis', 'Mme. Eugène Resal', 'Arethusa', and the green rose 'Viridiflora'.
22. TEA ROSES.
Teas are so called because many discern in their blossoms the scent
of "a newly-opened sample of the choicest tea". Their supposed ancestry is
R. chinensis x R. gigantea,
the latter being a high-climbing Chinese rose with large primrose-colored
blossoms fading quickly to white. The British introduced the first two cultivars
to the West in 1810 and 1824; the French quickly began hybridizing with them.
The spiralling starry form now usually associated with an unfurling rose bud
derives from the Tea and, to a lesser extent, the China. Teas are considered by
many aficionadoes to have the most exquisite form and coloration in the world of
the Rose. The problem confronted by the French, however, was that the bushes
producing these blossoms were frail (at least, in France and England!), and the
blossoms very susceptible to damage from the weather. Some took to growing them
as greenhouse plants; others tried to improve the plant by cross-breeding.
Several interesting results were produced, as we shall see in other categories
below. In the history of the Teas, however, the most important crosses were with
the Bourbons. This began a new race of Teas, most of which were quite unlike the
old ones: large, vigorous, thick-limbed shrubs, often with perfectly healthy,
beautiful glossy foliage. The colors range throughout the rose palette (reds,
pinks, whites, blushes, yellows, oranges), but most special to Teas are the
colors of dawn: tones of gold, warm pink, and rose shading into each other, with
delicate tints and highlightings. 'Anna Olivier', 'Maman Cochet', 'Safrano', 'Comtesse
de Labarthe', 'Mme. Antoine Mari', 'Souvenir de Thérèse Levet', 'Catherine
Mermet', 'Étoile de Lyon', 'Devoniensis', 'Lady Hillingdon'.
23. BOURBON ROSES.
Bourbon Roses are named for the Île Bourbon, now called Réunion, in
the Indian Ocean, where they traditionally are supposed to have originated from
a natural cross between the China 'Parsons' Pink' and the red 'Monthly Rose'
(the original Damask Perpetual), two roses which were used as hedge material on
the island. (This, however, is an area of hot dispute in almost every
particular.) Seeds of this plant, and cuttings of the plant, showed up in Paris
in 1819 and 1821 respectively. The way in which the virtues of its disparate
parents were combined made these new roses popular, and after ten years of
largely unsuccessful attempts, good new Bourbons began to come out of the
breeding grounds in the 1830's. In the best of them, vigor was combined with
floriferousness, and beauty with fragrance. A typical Bourbon will have the
arching growth harkening back to its Damask ancestors, with the lush flowers and
fragrance from much the same source; but it will also have a strong tendency to
rebloom from the China ancestor, as well as a certain often subtle influence of
the China flower form. Bourbons, however, are often not typical at all, and
range from the arching growth just mentioned to the very dwarf, China-like
growth of the cultivar 'Hermosa', indeed one of the oldest Bourbons still
available (it had shown up by 1835). They range in color from deep reds through
pinks to blush and white. The easygoing charms of the Bourbons have returned
them to the forefront of popularity among today's old rose people, though very
few were introduced after 1900; their original heyday was the period 1830-1850.
'Souvenir de la Malmaison', 'Reine Victoria', 'Louise Odier', 'Gloire des
Rosomanes', 'Mme. Isaac Pereire', 'Acidalie', 'Boule de Neige'.
24. NOISETTE ROSES.
Just after 1800, John Champneys of Charleston, South Carolina,
crossed a pink China (traditionally supposed to be 'Parsons' Pink') with the
Musk Rose R. moschata, and obtained a
large-growing shrub with clusters of lightly fragrant pink blossoms, 'Champneys'
Pink Cluster'. A neighbor there, Philippe Noisette, planted its seeds and grew a
plant which was similar but dwarfer, and which had larger clusters of doubler
flowers, 'Blush Noisette'. Philippe Noisette's brother happened to be a major
French nurseryman in Paris, and it was through this latter that the rose found
commercial release around 1815. The industrious French breeders soon went to
work, and within ten years, there were more than a hundred Noisettes in the
catalogs in colors from white to crimson-purple. The new yellow Tea showing up
about that time, it was crossed with the Noisettes, with a result which
fundamentlaly changed the Noisette group; the blossoms became larger, the
clusters smaller, and the plants more Tea-like, with an inclination towards
"climbing." The group reached its apogee or indeed apotheosis in 1853 with the
release of one of the most beloved roses of all, the climber 'Gloire de Dijon'.
Further climbing Noisettes, mostly in shades of yellow or pinkish yellow, were
released through the turn of the century when newer, hardier climbers of
different background took the fore. The seemingly final stage of Noisettes,
returning them much to their original concept of multi-flowered shrubs, was
coming with the development of the Hybrid Musks (comprising crosses between
Noisettes and Hybrid Teas, etc.) in the 1910's, 1920's, and beyond. 'Gloire de
Dijon', 'Desprez à Fleur Jaune', 'Bougainville', 'Chromatella', 'Solfatare', 'Maréchal
Niel', 'Aimée Vibert', 'William Allen Richardson', 'Lily Metschersky', 'Lamarque'.
25. HYBRID BOURBON, HYBRID
CHINA, HYBRID NOISETTE ROSES.
These crosses between Bourbons, Chinas, Noisettes, and the old
European sorts (Gallicas, etc.) were made initially as an attempt to deal with
the lack of hardiness of these new sorts with R. chinensis
background. The outcome was quite varied. The results are not absolutely clear,
because offspring close in characteristics to the, say, Gallica parent would be
sold as a Gallica, and offspring close to the, say, China parent would find
itself sold as a China; thus, many of these hybrids, produced in the 1820's and
1830's primarily, masquerade as something they are not genetically. The
important thing, however, is that, due to the laws of genetics, almost the
entirety of these are once-bloomers--but often blooming that one time a season
with the most extreme profusion and beautiful fragrant flowers. The plants are
most often climber-like and of the most extreme vigor, frequently heavily
foliated. Novices and others must be careful to distinguish between
(once-blooming) Hybrid Chinas and (repeat-blooming) China hybrids;
(once-blooming) Hybrid Bourbons and (repeat-blooming) Bourbon hybrids;
(once-blooming) Hybrid Noisettes and (repeat-blooming) Noisette hybrids. 'George
IV', 'Belle de Crécy', 'Duchesse de Montebello', 'Mme. Plantier', 'Triomphe de
Laffay', 'Comtesse de Lacépède', 'Las-Cases', 'Malton'.
26. HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSES.
As the breeding work continued in the late 1820's with the Hybrid
Chinas, Hybrid Bourbons, and Hybrid Noisettes, they were crossed with the
hardiest re-blooming roses they had on hand, the Damask Perpetuals. Thus was
born the race of Hybrid Perpetuals, which soon grew to encompass as well any
re-blooming progeny of the Hybrid Chinas, etc. A first, very obscure, reblooming
hybrid, 'Hybride Remontant à Bois Lisse', peeks at us from 1829, another eight
or so show up over the next decade, and soon the floodgates opened, thousands
being released over the next sixty years. They were crossed with each other and
with the Bourbons and Damask Perpetuals until a nearly full range of color from
blush white to deepest red and purple was obtained; only purest white and yellow
eluded them for a time, spurring interesting experiments (as we shall see).
Typically, a Hybrid Perpetual will have big, cabbagy blossoms at the top of a
long, often arching cane. As HP's were developed simultaneously with the rise of
rose shows and competition, the forms became increasingly refined over the years
from the original muddled or quartered look (now back in fashion!) to a rather
fulsome version of what we might expect in a rose of today. Many HP's show a
tendency towards fungal diseases, requiring a careful program of spraying. The
thrill of a garden full of big, fragrant HP's in full bloom is something not to
be forgotten; many will think of this and be quick to forgive them their often
miserly rebloom. They began to fade from the scene with the advent of the Hybrid
Tea. 'Baronne Prévost', 'Victor Verdier', 'Charles Lefebvre', 'Jules Margottin',
'American Beauty', 'Général Jacqueminot', 'Frau Karl Druschki', 'Georg Arends',
'Mrs. John Laing', 'Souvenir d'Alphonse Lavallé', 'Reine des Violettes', 'Tartarus'.
27. OLD HYBRID TEA ROSES.
Ah, me. Here one is, a breeder in, say, the late 1860's, trying to
breed a "different" HP among the hundreds coming out every year, one with
shapely blossoms to win at shows, one that blooms more to attract those looking
for garden decoration, maybe one that's white or even yellow! The obvious
answer, and one that occurred to several breeders--but most notably to Lacharme
of France and Bennett of England--was to breed the Tea into the Hybrid
Perpetual; they were willing to risk some loss of hardiness to gain something
"different." Though the occasional HP x T cross had been made before and
released, the first long-term programs of such were made by Lacharme and
Bennett. From the mid-1870's on, others tried their hands at it increasingly;
and, by the 1890's, Hybrid Teas were replacing Hybrid Perpetuals in the gardens
of "modern"-thinking rosarians. The Hybrid Teas bloomed more, were bushier, had
more beautiful leaves and better-shaped flowers, and the color-range, somewhat
limited in the HP's, was extended into the warm, exotic range of the Teas; the
HP's mainly held ground where their greater hardiness made them more desirable.
The problems with these new HT's was that they were, as we just saw, more
tender, and they carried with them the problem that many Teas had of nodding on
the stem; further, the color range, though wide, was muted: milky whites, creamy
pinks, pale coral pinks, dull rose-coloreds, no real full-bodied reds at first;
worst, perhaps, they were no improvement in health. And yet . . . and yet . . .
they are beautiful, delicate creatures. (Traditionalists remind me to cite 'La
France' as "the first Hybrid Tea"; revisionists correctly note that it was
introduced, in 1867, as a Bourbon hybrid. More appropriate "first HTs" would be
1872's 'Cheshunt Hybrid' and 'Mme. Lacharme'.) 'Captain Christy', 'Mme. Lacharme',
'Antonine Verdier', 'Jean Sisley', 'Julius Finger', 'Grace Darling', 'Viscountess
Folkestone', 'Mme. Caroline Testout', 'Kaiserin Auguste Viktoria', 'Antoine
Rivoire', 'Mme. Wagram, Comtesse de Turenne'.
28. PERNETIANA ROSES.
Though the new HT's had definite primrose yellow tinges from their
Tea connections, Pernet-Ducher of Lyon, France, wanted to develop a deep yellow.
Experimentation in the 1890's with the difficult to breed with
R. fœtida at length brought a cross between it and an old
purple-red HP, 'Antoine Ducher'. From this came 'Soleil d'Or' of 1900, a rather
difficult-to-grow plant with blossoms of a revolutionary coloration:
gold/pink/saffron/etc., much more pronounced than it had ever been in the Teas.
This cross and its nearer descendants were called "Pernetiana Roses" in honor of
Pernet-Ducher. They are characterized by growth and health quirks associated
with R. fœtida (glossy leaves, die-back, fungal
problems). To remedy these problems, and to satisfy what would be the natural
urge, breeders began crossing these Pernetianas with the Hybrid Teas of the
time, producing wild colors in oranges, hot pinks, bright yellows, flame,
apricot . . . By the late 1920's, these two races had merged to produce the
Modern Hybrid Tea of today. 'Soleil d'Or', 'Mme. Édouard Herriot', 'Los
Angeles', 'Souvenir de Claudius Pernet', 'Souvenir de Georges Pernet', 'Willowmere',
'Autumn', 'California', 'Arthur R. Goodwin', 'Lyon-Rose'.
29. MOSSY REMONTANTS.
While the HP's were getting underway in the 1830's and 1840's,
another new sort of repeat-blooming rose made its appearance: the Mossy
Remontant. The first one was a sport of the Damask Perpetual 'Bifera' in 1835;
but the first one intentionally bred was released by Mauget of Orleans, France,
in 1844. Over the next forty or so years, a number of Mossy Remontants were
released, some quite charming indeed, though many are neither very mossy nor
very remontant (reblooming). Many are close to the Damask Perpetuals in plant
habit, having undoubtedly been bred from them, and make neat little bushes in
the garden. Others seem to have Hybrid Perpetual relations, and grow in the
gawky way of that tribe. These do better in warm climates than do the regular
Mosses. Their colors range from white through pink to deep red. 'Alfred de
Dalmas', 'Soupert et Notting', 'Césonie', 'Mme. Édouard Ory', 'Pompon Perpétuel',
'Salet', 'Deuil de Paul Fontaine', 'Baron de Wassenaër'.
30. POLYANTHA ROSES.
In 1869, Guillot fils of Lyon, France, sowed seed from
R. multiflora 'Polyantha', a large shrub introduced from
Japan around 1862, with clusters of single, white, fragrant blossoms. From this,
he obtained a large crop of much varied seedlings; "I didn't have so many as two
which resembled their mother!" said he. Elsewhere in Lyon, the breeder Rambaux
had sown a separate crop, with similar results. Guillot fils got seeds from a
semi-double in the crop, sowed these, and from this arose the first Polyantha, 'Paquerette',
released in 1875. Alongside the "pure" Polyanthas, breeders crossed them with
Teas to obtain clusters of small but perfectly-formed buds, as with 'Mlle.
Cecile Brunner' and 'Perle d'Or'. Polyanthas normally produce dwarfish, compact
bushes ranging from one foot to three in height, bearing often immense clusters
of small blossoms which can range through the whole spectrum of rose coloration.
Some have a tendency towards leaflessness in the Summer. New Polyanthas continue
to be bred and released in the present-day world of roses due to their unique
qualities for breeding and display. They were crossed beginning in the Teens and
20's with Hybrid Teas to produce the Floribunda group. 'Mlle. Cecile Brunner', 'Perle
d'Or', 'Rita Sammons', 'Lady Anne Kidwell', 'Mignonette', 'Clotilde Soupert', 'Éblouissant',
'Anne-Marie de Montravel', 'Mme. Norbert Levavasseur', 'Perle des Rouges', 'Merveille
des Rouges', 'Margo Koster', 'Sunshine'.
31. RUGOSA ROSES.
Rugosa roses are those derived from the thorny Japanese rose
R. rugosa, the two main forms of which are wine-red and
white. Though a few crosses had been made earlier (as early as the 1820's), in
the 1890's several hybridizers became interested in working with the species due
to its hardiness, health, vigor, and special beauty. This lattermost is due to
its glossy green leaves and splendid orange hips as well as its large, beautiful
flowers. Due to the ease with which it crosses, much has been tried with the
Rugosas, and efforts continue today. Colors range from white through pink to red
and purple, and yellow can be found as well. There are new dwarfer cultivars,
but normally the specimen will reach five or six feet in height. Some old
cultivars: 'Roseraie de l'Haÿ', 'Blanc Double de Coubert', 'Fimbriata', 'Mme.
Alvarez del Campo', 'New Century', 'Comte d'Epremesnil','Grootendorst Supreme',
'Rose Apples'.
32. MISCELLANEOUS ROSES.
There are many small groups of roses we cannot cover here due to
limitations of space. We can, however, at least mention a few names from some of
these groups: Arvensis ('Dundee Rambler', 'Ayrshire Queen', 'Mme. Viviand-Morel',
'Ruga'), Banksia ('Albo-Plena', 'Lutescens', 'Luteo-Plena'), Bracteata ('Alba
Odorata', 'Maria Léonida', 'Mermaid'), Hugonis ('Albert Maumené', 'Dr. E.M.
Mills'), Laevigata ('Ramona', 'Anemonen Rose', 'Silver Moon'), Musk ('Flore
Pleno', 'Fraser's Pink Musk', 'Princesse de Nassau'), Roxburghii ('Ma Surprise',
'Triomphe de la Guillotière', 'Domaine de Chapuis', 'Chateau de la Juvenie'),
Soulieana ('Chevy Chase', 'Kew Rambler'), Pomifera ('Duplex'); Hybrid Musk,
based on Noisette/HT crosses ('Felicia', 'Francesca', 'Pax', 'Nur Mahal',
'Sammy', 'Penelope'), Lambertiana, based on Multiflora/HT crosses ('Trier', 'Gneisenau',
'Lessing', 'Eva'), Thomasiana, based on Wichuraiana/HT crosses ('Bishop
Darlington', 'Bloomfield Dainty', 'Bloomfield Perfection'), Rubrifolia, a
fascinating species with reddish glaucous foliage ('Carmenetta', 'Flora Plena',
'Semi-Double'). Additionally, many species make charming additions to the garden
in their own right. Some would be: R. brunonii, R. californica,
R. carolina, R. cymosa, R. gigantea, R. macrophylla, R. moyesii, R. omiensis
'Pteracantha', R. pisocarpa, R. stellata `Mirifica',
R. xanthina, and many others—not forgetting the very close
cousin of roses, Hulthemia persica, which has
recently entered into some mainstream rose breeding ('Tigris', 'Euphrates',
'Nigel Hawthorne').
33. MIDDLE-AGED ROSES.
Increasingly without a home are the very beautiful Hybrid Teas and
Floribundas introduced in the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s, 1950s . . . Too young to be
"old" roses, too old for many current-day rosarians, these wonderful cultivars
need an interest group of their own.
34. CURRENT QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES IN THE
FIELD.
There are many questions in the field of Old Roses relating primarily
to history (cultural questions are, in the main, the same as for modern roses).
Those interested could spend many pleasurable hours trying to obtain
biographical data on breeders, or researching the methods or cultivars used in
their breeding. Persons in or around The Netherlands are in a position to do the
field a very great favor by putting together a major article or book in English
about the breeders, methods, and cultivars used by the Dutch in their breeding
1600-1830, as there is virtually nothing on this very very important subject
available in English (or French). Questions about the history and make-up of the
Damasks and Damask Perpetuals remain without firm answers, and are probably in
the province of scientific rather than historic investigation.
An important activity undertaken and enjoyed by many old rosers is to
visit old gardens, cemeteries, churches, town sites, and the like to find,
propagate, and try to identify old roses found growing there. Debate on the
subject of identification is often hot and heart-felt, many people having
sentimental attachments to names long familiar or roses they have found; those
entering into the fray need to have obtained accurate descriptions from old
sources such as catalogs, magazines, or books published when the cultivars were
new. Those in a position to do so can check the old bulletins or minutes of
their local horticultural society for data about what old roses were popular in
the area in a particular era; those living in old rose-breeding areas may
stumble on a gold mine of information when they do so. Those more interested in
growing could put together collections of roses from, for instance, one breeder,
and then write an article comparing, contrasting, extrapolating results. A major
need is to import into the U.S. cultivars which at present exist only in Europe;
the person attempting to do so needs to be able to meet the requirements of the
USDA quarantine as well as to negotiate the difficulties of doing business
overseas.
Christmas Tree Production
There are many reasons why Christmas tree production is a large forest
industry in Michigan. Favorable climatic factors, a broad mix of soil types and
a semi-centralized location all contribute to the production and marketing of
several species and varieties of trees. Additionally, there exists in the state
a large horticulturally related industry which is compatible with many aspects
of Christmas tree production. Although several Christmas tree operations are
large in size (more than 1000 acres), most are smaller, family operated
businesses which employ seasonal labor to assist with the operation.
For some, establishing a Christmas tree business to generate additional
income appears attractive. Such ventures can be profitable. However, would-be
growers are advised to thoroughly investigate all aspects of production and
marketing before undertaking such a project. This publication contains helpful
information for potential growers and for newly established operations. It is
not intended to encourage or promote the production of Christmas trees; rather,
it provides answers to some basic questions concerning the industry.
A Marketing Plan
While this may appear to be a question which should be addressed once the
production process is complete, it is necessary that it be considered at the
beginning. The production and subsequent supply of Christmas trees available for
market is cyclical. When the number of trees available for harvest is down,
demand and profits are good.
When supplies are ample, market demand is usually down and marketing trees is
more difficult. Prices tend to decline as supplies increase and returns realized
by the grower are less. A grower unable to sell trees will experience a
substantial loss, not only in lost receipts but in time and effort as well. For
this reason a workable, realistic marketing program should be developed before
the production process begins. Failure to develop such a plan could result in
substantial economic losses as well as much frustration.
Reaching Market Size
The length of time required for trees to reach market size is variable
depending on tree species, soil fertility, management skills and size desired.
Occasionally Scotch pine and white pine trees will be of harvestable size and
quality by the time they are six years of age. However, more commonly this will
require seven or eight growing seasons. For spruces, true firs and Douglas fir,
a minimum
of eight years is necessary, with nine or ten years common for many
situations. Intensive management, including effective weed control and
maintenance of adequate soil fertility, may shorten the time required to produce
a salable tree.
A Quality Product
A successful competitor in the Christmas tree business must produce trees of
the highest possible quality. This requires more than planting, annual shearing
and an occasional insect-controlling spray. Quality trees are characterized by
straight stems, uniform taper, insect-disease free foliage, vigorous needles of
good color, a generally lush appearance and absence of dead or off-colored
foliage. This requires time and effort to complete such practices as staking,
obtaining effective weed control, basal trimming, top or leader training as
necessary and fertilization as appropriate. Unless a commitment is made to
produce trees of the highest quality, it is likely difficulty will be
encountered at the time the trees are ready to market.
Cash Flow Projection
Prior to beginning a Christmas tree production venture, it is recommended
that a cash flow projection be prepared. This projection must include all
anticipated expenditures (seedlings, planting costs, chemicals, labor, etc.) as
well as fixed carrying costs such as land payments (if mortgaged), property
taxes, insurance costs, etc. It must be realized these annual costs will be
sustained for a minimum of six or seven years before any income is received.
Furthermore, because market conditions several years in the future are
uncertain, it is recommended that a conservative estimate of sales receipts be
made. Overestimating anticipated revenues may result in the inability to
continue the operation simply because it is unprofitable, or reducing the amount
of care and cultural practices provided to the trees, thereby lowering their
quality and making them more difficult to market.
Growing Areas
Christmas trees can be grown in all parts of the state although some areas
are better suited than others. A few species such as Douglas fir, Concolor fir
and Fraser fir are more demanding with respect to site than others. In
particular these species require sites with good air drainage. Additionally they
will not produce high quality trees when planted on wet or otherwise poorly
drained sites. For other species such as Scotch pine, which is considered hardy
throughout the state, specific varieties are better adapted to some locations
than others. As an example, the planting of Spanish varieties is generally
restricted to the southern third of the state, while Turkish or Scandinavian
varieties are very hardy in the colder northern regions.
While a species can be identified which will grow in any particular region of
the state, it should be remembered that harvesting of large numbers of trees may
be more difficult in the northern part of the state due to heavy snow conditions
which are frequently present in late fall. Furthermore, the distance to large
metropolitan marketing areas is greater for trees planted in northern Michigan
plantations.
Preferred Soils
Many of the conifer species grown for Christmas trees will grow
satisfactorily on a wide variety of soil types. However, there are some
preferred soil types. Pines are generally adapted to sandy or sandy loam soils
while spruces and firs (including Douglas fir) will grow best on fine-textured
loams and clay loams. Some species will perform equally well on both soil types
as long as adequate fertility and moisture are present. It is essential that
soils be well drained. Generally speaking, Christmas tree plantations will not
be profitable on low-lying soils where poor surface and internal drainage is
present.
Land Requirements
This will depend on how much time, effort and money is available to establish
and manage the plantation. Approximately 1,210 trees can be planted on an acre
of land with the trees spaced 6 feet both ways (normal spacing). Firs are
occasionally planted somewhat closer (5 1/2 x 6 feet). In actual practice,
however, the number planted will be slightly less (1,000+), since some space
will be used for access lanes, turning areas, etc. For hobby or supplemental
income purposes, nearly any size area can be used, depending on the level of
activity and income desired. For commercial operations producing trees for the
wholesale market, a 40-acre plantation is probably minimum size; larger acreages
(around 100) are more cost-efficient.
Large operations mean more efficient use of time and equipment and greater
income. Several ages of trees must be present to support sustained annual
harvests; thus, only a small fraction (approximately 1/10) of the total acreage
in a plantation will be harvested in any one year.
Common Species
The soils, topography and climate of Michigan are nearly ideal for the
production of Christmas trees. More than eight species are produced in
commercial operations in the state. Historically native species like balsam fir
and white spruce were important. However, today it is common to plant many
non-native species as well. Scotch pine is the most commonly planted species in
the state, although in the past few years, as a percentage of all trees planted,
Scotch pine numbers have declined. This species has enjoyed wide popularity due
to its relatively rapid growth rate, favorable response to plantation culture
and adaptability to harvesting and shipping. More than 20 separate varieties of
Scotch pine are available, reflecting differences in needle length, hardiness
and winter color. A few other pines are also grown for Christmas trees. They
include Austrian, eastern white pine and red or Norway pine. Southwestern and
western white pine have also been planted by a few producers. Pines are suited
to coarse-textured soils and do well when planted on areas of sandy soil which
are unsuitable for producing other agricultural crops.
In addition to the pines, several other species can be grown and managed to
produce Christmas trees. White spruce is well suited to finer textured, upland
soils. Blue spruce generally grows well throughout the state and is gaining
popularity as a Christmas tree species. Occasionally the entire tree with roots
attached is dug, potted and used as a "living" Christmas tree. Following the
holidays it can be planted outdoors as an ornamental. Of all the spruces, blue
spruce has the best "keeping qualities" but presents the greatest difficulty in
harvesting and handling. Norway spruce grows well, although poor needle
retention prevents this from being a widely marketable tree.
Douglas fir of Rocky Mountain origin is commonly grown along the Great Lakes
and on inland sites where air drainage is good. It is susceptible to injury from
late spring frosts, especially when planted on non-upland sites.
Douglas fir is not well adapted to wet soils. As with other non-native
species grown for Christmas trees, geographic origin of seed for planting stock
is of considerable importance to survival and growth. Douglas fir is often
considered to be a premium Christmas tree species and is highly recommended
where soils and sites are favorable.
Recently, Fraser and balsam fir have increased in popularity and accordingly
are being more widely planted. Fraser fir in particular is a very desirable
species, although it is among the most difficult of all species to grow and
develop into a quality tree. Site selection is critical; soils on wet sites or
soils which tend to be droughty are unacceptable. Little variation in seed
source exists. Planting stock produced from the seed of native Appalachian
region trees is widely available. Other firs occasionally planted include
concolor or white fir and grand fir. Interest exists in other fir species;
however, most of these have not been established as hardy and adaptable to
Michigan conditions.
Planting Trees
The majority of commercial tree operations in the state establish new
plantations using machine planters. Hand planting is mostly confined to small
operations and to replacing trees which have died in established plantings, or
for plantings in rough or inaccessible areas. The rate of planting with a
machine is substantially faster; well organized planting crews can plant 1000 or
more trees per hour. In contrast, an experienced hand planter can only plant up
to 800, or at most 1000, trees per day.
Survival can be excellent using either hand or machine planting methods.
Likewise, low survival rates can result from either method. With both methods it
is essential that the planting hole or slit be deep enough to allow the roots to
be spread naturally and not become jammed or twisted. Failure to have good root
distribution is one of the most common reasons for poor survival and growth in
many plantations. Furthermore it is necessary that the soil be firmly packed
around the seedling or transplant, to prevent drying and to ensure that adequate
moisture relations be established and maintained.
Obtaining Planting Stock
To produce quality Christmas trees which will be competitive in the
marketplace, it is essential that high-quality planting stock be used. For most
operations this means purchasing either seedlings or transplants from a
commercial nursery. A number of private tree seedling-transplant nurseries are
present within the state.
Most produce several different species and have planting stock from varying
seed sources available. Planting stock is offered in different sizes and ages.
Orders for nursery stock should be placed well in advance of the planting
season, particularly if a specific seed source or size is desired.
Planting stock is classified as either seedlings or transplants. Seedlings
designated as (1-0), (2-0) or (3-0) are produced from seed planted directly in
the seedbed and allowed to remain there for one, two or three years. Plants of
this type, usually 2-0 in size, are recommended for Scotch pine. White pine
plantations have been successfully established using 3-0 seedlings. Seedlings
are referred to as transplants when they are lifted from the seedbed after one
or two years, then replanted in a second nursery bed where they remain for an
additional year or more before being lifted again. Transplants are designated as
(2-1), (2-2) or (3-1), etc. The sum of both numbers gives the age of the plant.
Because of their larger root systems and stem diameters, transplants are
recommended for firs such as balsam, Fraser and concolor as well as for Douglas
fir and all spruces.
Caring for Trees
For newly planted Christmas trees to grow rapidly and to develop into quality
trees, it is essential that competing vegetation growing near each tree be
controlled (Figure 8). Grasses and weeds compete with newly planted and
established trees for moisture and nutrients. Failure to control competitive
plants will likely result in poor survival as well as reduced growth rates.
Furthermore rodent, insect and disease problems may be more serious in a
plantation where effective grass and weed control is not practiced.
Weed control is usually obtained by the use of chemicals, mowing or
cultivation. Often a combination of two of these treatments is used. Several
approved and labeled chemicals are available. Depending on the type of
weed-grass problem present, herbicides may be used singly or in combination with
one or more products. Mowing is generally done using small tractors or specially
designed mowing units. Mowing is often combined with herbicides when chemicals
are applied in bands over or beside the rows. Cultivation is not well adapted to
Christmas tree plantations. Besides being impractical for large areas, it may
cause root injury to established trees as well as contributing to increased soil
erosion.
In addition to controlling competing vegetation, it is often necessary to
correct crooks in tree stems or remove one or more multiple stems when present.
Staking small trees is particularly important for some species such as Scotch
pine. Removing doubles or other multiple shoots to permit the development of a
single-stemmed straight tree is often necessary. Staking and correction of
multiple stem problems is normally done during the second growing season
following planting.
Objectives of Shearing
To develop quality trees which will be salable in a competitive marketplace,
it is necessary that each tree be sheared (Figure 9). This practice usually
begins when the trees are between two and three feet in height. For species such
as Scotch pine, this normally occurs in the second or third growing season. For
firs, Douglas fir and spruce, shearing usually begins in the third or fourth
year following planting. Shearing must continue for each year of the rotation
including the year of harvest.
Two principal objectives are achieved by shearing. It permits the development
of trees with a uniform characteristic shape and taper. It also results in
increasing the foliage density of the tree by promoting the formation of more
buds and therefore the development of more twigs and branches. Shearing is
absolutely essential to produce trees with full foliage and uniform symmetry.
The time of shearing is important. With pines, shearing should be done during
early- to midsummer when height growth is nearly complete. The actual dates to
begin the shearing process will vary, depending on species and location within
the state. For pines, shearing in southern lower Michigan begins around June 10
to 15; further north, shearing will begin a week to ten days later. In all
locations within the state, shearing of pine species should be completed by the
first week in August. Among the pines, it is important to shear the longer
needled species such as Austrian and eastern white pine early in the shearing
period, in order to obtain a good bud set.
With spruces and firs, including Douglas fir, shearing generally begins
around the first of August. Because tree response differs from pines, shearing
can occur anytime during the dormant season as well. Shearing can continue
during the winter and even early spring before new growth begins. However,
research studies and grower experiences have indicated that tree response is
usually better if shearing is done in late summer or early fall.
Several types of tools and equipment can be used to shear Christmas trees.
While the majority of Christmas tree shearing uses hand tools such as hedge
clippers or shearing knives, mechanical units are increasing in popularity.
Power shearing equipment can substantially increase shearing productivity,
although some hand work will still be necessary on most trees. Whatever type of
shearing equipment is used, proper safety equipment and procedures should be
observed.
Insect and Disease Problems
Prompt identification and management of potentially damaging insect and/or
disease problems is a must for high quality Christmas trees. Unlike most other
forestry ventures, the value of Christmas trees is not dependent on wood
properties or qualities. Christmas tree value is largely determined by overall
appearance. Appearance is a reflection of shape, foliage density, tree fullness,
needle color and uniformity.
Any factor which detracts from one or more of these characteristics is of
concern to the Christmas tree grower (Figure 10). Even minor infestations of
some insects and/or diseases can be destructive. While the Christmas tree
producer may be able to keep insect and disease problems at low levels through
management practices, chemical pesticide treatments likely will be necessary at
some time in the course of the rotation. Fortunately, several approved pest
control materials are available. In contrast to other intensively managed tree
crops such as nut or fruit orchards, there is no need to follow a specific spray
schedule which involves several treatments each year. Rather, the Christmas tree
producer should regularly inspect his/her trees and take the action necessary to
control a specific problem when it is detected.
Insect and disease problems can be difficult to diagnose and control. For
additional information on specific pests, consult the references at the end of
this bulletin.
Timing the Harvest
The number of years required to produce a tree ready for harvest depends on
the species of tree present, the harvest size desired and the cultural practices
conducted during the rotation. To produce a six- to seven-foot Scotch pine, an
average of seven to nine years is necessary. If smaller or larger sized trees
are desired, the production time interval will be more or less. For species such
as the true firs, Douglas fir or Colorado blue spruce, the production period
will usually be a couple of years longer. This time can be reduced if intensive
management practices are applied.
The actual time required will be influenced by soil type, cultural and
management practices including shearing procedures, and genetic characteristics
related to geographic origin of the seed. In general, growth rates are slightly
faster for trees growing in the southern portion of the state than for those
growing in more northern locations.
Once proper size has been attained, harvesting will usually begin in late
fall. Large commercial operations begin harvesting Scotch pine in late October
and will continue through November and early December if necessary. Harvesting
of true firs, Douglas fir and Colorado blue spruce occurs later. In large
plantations it is necessary to begin harvest operations early to avoid
unfavorable weather and to meet delivery demands by retailers. Producers who
have fewer trees to harvest usually delay the beginning of harvest for as long
as possible. Following harvest, trees are cleaned, baled and transported to
shaded storage yards where they remain until shipment to retail sales outlets.
Factors Affecting Profits
Total net profits which can be realized from a Christmas tree operation are
variable and depend on many factors. Among those of greatest importance are
species grown, quality and size of tree produced, costs of management practices,
length of the growing period required, land ownership costs and location and
method of marketing. Related to marketing, options including wholesale, retail
and choose-and-cut are available. Location may restrict the ability to develop a
retail or choose-and-cut facility.
Tree supply and market demand are among the factors most related to price.
Because these are subject to constant change, it is difficult to obtain an
accurate profit expectation since both wholesale and resale prices are impacted.
While profits cannot be projected, some information on production costs can be
provided. To be sure, these will vary significantly based on size of tree
produced, local labor costs and management efficiencies. However, the following
are general estimates for Scotch pine: When converted to an average per tree
production cost, a value of $5.37 ($4030.00/750) is obtained. This average
figure can be used as a basis for establishing selling prices and profit
margins.
It must be stated that these are only average values and do not reflect cost
changes which may occur as a result of severe insect-disease problems,
weather-incurred losses, etc. Likewise, the cost of equipment required to
perform some of the operations listed is not included. This is an important item
and must be accounted for; however, much of the equipment needed is available if
other farming operations are conducted. If not, a sizable cost share must be
allocated to equipment purchase. On the other hand, additional income resulting
from better management (more trees planted per acre or higher percentage of
trees harvested) is likewise not included.
Nevertheless, this compilation does present relative levels of costs to
expect in an average Scotch pine operation. As with all ventures involving the
production of agricultural crops, the management abilities and skills of the
operator greatly influence the level of success of the operation.