My CASL / COMET II Guide

Hi! Welcome to my guide to CASL/COMET II Assembly Laguage. The main reason why you'll study this is because you want to pass the Japanese Information Technology Standards Examination (JITSE)/ Philippine National Information Technology Standards (PhilNITS). Well, this guide can help you know the fundamentals. If you have difficulties learning it (after reading), I suggest that you simulate it. However, this thing requires you to have JAVA installed in your computer. If you have good background in Assembler programming, you'll easily grasp the idea as this is common problem in assembly language programming.

OK! Let's begin. But first, read the pre-requisite of this guide. I want you to study about them, I won't be spoon-feeding the ingredients. I'll just give you an insight to the fundamentals. Please study:

Number systems
Bits, Nibbles, Bytes, Words, Double Words
Bit Shifts & Number Compliments
Program Logic Formulation


 

If you're familiar with it already, then OK. If not, I suggest you study about it.

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BASIC CASL/COMET
By Richie Ryan R. Reyes, E.C.E. (Electronics and Communications Engineer)

ECE#0033195 / FE01-0084

Registers

Well, as this is just a guide I'll describe register in a way that you'll get the idea easily. In my own words, Registers are fixed variables of fixed size. They are intact, and need not to be assigned. In CASL/COMET, these registers are 1-word length. 1 word = 16 bits. Think of them as variables already defined as 16 bits length. Please refer to my example.

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
                               

Bits from 0-7 are lower ordered bit and bits from 8-15 are higher order bits.
The 15th bit is the sign bit. This determines if the number is positive or negative (as per IEEE standards).

Now, these registers can contain any combinations of bits, as assigned or as modified by an instruction. Let's take this example (now you'll see why you need to be familiar with the number systems).

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

We then calculate it, having a value of 2^6 + 2^5 + 2^3 + 2^0.

We can represent the contents of the register in different number systems.

In binary, the contents of the register will be 0000000001101001
In decimal, the contents of the register will be 105
In octal, the contents of the register will be 151
In hexa-decimal (or hex), the contents of the register will be 0069

In CASL/COMET, we'll be using Decimal, Binary and Hexa most of the time.

These are the kinds of registers used in CASL/COMET:

GR (General Purpose Registers)
In this AL (Assembly Language), there are 8 GRs, GR0 to GR7, all of 16 bits length.

SP (Stack Pointer)
This register keeps track of the upper tier address of the stack. SP is 16-bit length.

PR (Program Register)
This register keeps the address of the next instruction. It works the same as the Instruction Pointer in other AL. PR is 16-bit length.

FR (Flag Register)
The flag register is like a status register. They are used when making conditional jumps.  FR consist of 3 bits: I also mentioned this on this blog ウェブ開発者

                            OF (Overflow Flag)
                           
Whenever the result of an operation exceeds the value of the register, it is set to 1. Else it is normally 0.
                            SF (Sign Flag)
                           
Whenever the result of an operation makes the 15th bit 1(or could be from other operations) of the register, it is (SF) set to 1. Else it is normally 0.
                            ZF (Zero Flag)
                           
Whenever the result of an operation zeroes all bits of the register, it is set to 1. Else it is normally 0.

The flag register is arranged in this manner: OF-SF-ZF

Let's go to the program Instructions.

Instruction Format

Most of instructions will be in this format:

[Instruction] [Destination], [Source]

[Instruction] is the instruction you want to perform

 [Destination] the destination regsiter

, is a separator for registers or numerical values.

 [Source] is the source register or numerical value.

EXAMPLE:

LD GR1, GR2 (Loads the contents of GR2 to GR1)

AND GR1, GR2 (ANDs the GR1 to GR2 and stores the result in GR1)

ASSIGNING VALUE TO REGISTER

LD - load
moves the contents of source to destination.

Format:
LD Destination, Source

EXAMPLE:

Instruction Result
LD GR2,=1111 GR2 =0457
LD GR2,=1 GR2 =0001
LD GR2,=12 GR2 =000C
LD GR2,=16 GR2 =0010

NOTE: INPUT IS DECIMAL, IT IS STORED AS THE CONVERTED NUMBER TO HEX
NOTE: IF YOU APPEND # BEFORE THE NUMBER, THE ASSEMBLER CONSIDER THE INPUT AS HEX
NOTE: SOURCE CAN BE A REGISTER, DESTINATION CANNOT BE AN IMMEDIATE VALUE

EXAMPLE:
 

Instruction Result
LD GR2,=#8000 GR2=8000
LD GR2,=#A020 GR2=A020


AND
The logical Product

Format:
AND Destination, Source

Example:

LD GR2,=15
AND GR2,=1

RESULT: GR2 = 0001

LD GR2,=17
AND GR2,=16

RESULT: GR2 = 0010

NOTE: FIRST CONVERT ALL HEX TO BIN, THEN *operand* TO VALUE
THEN STORE RESULT IN GR2

LD GR2,=15 GR2 =000F
AND GR2,=1

RESULT: GR2 = 0001


REFERENCING CONTENTS

LEA/LAD

EXAMPLE

LD GR1,=1
LD GR2,=0

LAD GR2,0,GR1

RESULT:
GR2=0001
GR1=0001

Another Example:

LD GR1,=1
LD GR2,=0

LAD GR2,1,GR1 ;LOAD THE CONTENTS OF GR1 AND ADD 1 THEN STORE IN GR2

RESULT:
GR2=0001
GR1=0002
 

Conditions
CMPL/CMPA

NOTE: ALTHOUGH THIS IS USED TO COMPARE THE CONTENTS, TO RELATE IT BETTER WHEN IT ALTER THE FLAGS, TREAT THIS AS IF YOU'RE SUBTRACTING SOURCE FROM DESTINATION AND WILL NOT STORE THE RESULT TO THE DESTINATION.

IF IT RETURNS POSITIVE, SF = 0 AND ZF = 0;
IF IT RETURNS ZERO, SF = 0 AND ZF = 1;
IF IT RETURNS NEGATIVE, SF = 1 AND ZF = 0;

OVERFLOW FLAG (OF) IS ALWAYS ZERO, if no overflow occurred.

SHIFTING BITS:

LOGICAL SHIFT (KASAMA UNG SIGN BIT)
SLL (Shift Left Logical)
SRL (Shift Right Logical)

ARITHMETIC SHIFT (ZERO PAG GALING SA LEFTMOST BIT, SIGN BIT FROM THE RIGHT MOST)

SLA (Shift Left Arithmetic)
SRA (Shift Right Arithmetic)


NOTE: THE VALUE OF THE LAST SHIFTED BITS WILL BE SET TO THE OVERFLOW FLAG.

EXAMPLE:

LD GR2,=#8000
SLL GR2,1

RESULTS:
GR2 = #0000
OF = 1

HOWEVER

LD GR2,=#8000
SLL GR2,2

RESULTS:
GR2 = #0000
OF = 0
 

STACK

PUSH AND POP

PUSH PLACE THE CONTENTS OF REGISTER TO STACK

PUSH 0,GR1 PUSHES VALUE OF GR1 TO STACK
PUSH 1,GR1 PUSHES VALUE OF GR1+1 TO STACK
TAKE NOTE THAT 1 IS DECIMAL AND IS CONVERTED TO BIN WHEN ADDING. SO,

IF GR1=#000E AND WE
PUSH 32,GR1

THE RESULT IS

STACK POINTER IS DECREMENTED BY ONE. (DON'T WORRY, NDI GINAGAMIT SA FLOW UNG STACK POINTER SO YOU NEED NOT TO WORRY ABOUT TOO MUCH ADDRESSING, UNLESS YOU'RE UP MAKING EVIL THINGS LIKE VIRUSES. HOWEVER TO BECOME A CONTROL FREAK, MASTER THE MANIPULATION OF THINGS THAT CAN’T BE EASILY ALTERED, LIKE INSTRUCTION POINTER OR STACK POINTER)

GR1 = #000E
(ASSUME STACK BEFORE PUSH IS @ F000.)
(STACK POINTER NOW IS AT EFFF)
VALUE OF PLACE WHERE STACK POINTER IS POINTING
= #002E

POP SIMPLY TAKE THE VALUE FROM THE PRESENT STACK POINTER TO THE REGISTER

EX
FROM THE LAST EXAMPLE, THE VALUE 002E IS BEING POINTED

POP GR2

RESULTS:
STACK = EMPTY
GR1 = 000E
GR2 = 000E

FLAGS:

ZERO FLAG : (ZF)

PAG ZERO LAHAT NG BITS, VALUE IS 1.
PAG HINDI ZERO, VALUE IS ZERO.

IN SHORT: INDICATE NYA PAG WALANG LAMAN UNG NAPAGSTOREAN.

EXAMPLE:
LD GR2,=#FFFF  (Zero Flag is 0, because the contents of register is not set to zero)
LD GR2,=0  (Zero Flag is 1, because the contents of register is set to zero)

ANOTHER EXAMPLE:
LD GR2,=#FFFF
LD GR1,=#EEEE
LD GR1,=#EEEE
SUBL GR2,GR1

RESULT:
GR2 = #1111
GR1 = #EEEE
ZF = 0

ANOTHER EXAMPLE:
LD GR2,=#FFFF
LD GR1,=#FFFF
SUBL GR2,GR1

RESULT:

GR2 = #0000
GR1 = #FFFF
ZF = 1

OVERFLOW (OF) = 0 IF NO OVERFLOW, 1 IF Overflow OCCURRED

THESE OPERANDS ALWAYS SET OF=0 WHEN EXECUTED

LD
AND
OR
XOR
CMPA
CMPL


OPERANDS WHERE SETTING IS PERFORMED

ADDA
SUBA
ADDL
SUBL


VALUE BEFORE EXECUTION IS STORED:

ST
LAD/LEA
JUMPS
PUSH
POP
CALL
RET


OF LESS IMPORTANCE (NOT USED IN FUNDAMENTAL IT EXAM DUE TO COMPLICATION)

SVC (CHECKING FOR ERROR CONTROL)
NOP (END OF OPERATION)

Stack Pointer

SP - stores the address on the top of the stack INITIALLY AT F000

push (sp ) -L 1
F000
0001
----
EFFF

POP (SP) +L 1

EFFF
0001
----
F000
 

DS (Define Storage)

DS DECLARES A VARIABLE OF FIXED WORD LENGTH, ST ASSIGNS VALUE TO A DECLARED DS
EXAMPLE

GR1=#1111
LD GR2,=#1112
ST GR2,HULA
ADD GR1,HULA

DS HULA 1
DC – EQUIVALENT OF DEFINE SA ASSEMBLER
 

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EOF


Well, that's it. I hope you're on your way to learning CASL/COMET. The key to mastering CASL/COMET assembly is LOTS of practice!
Don't worry if you don't understand half of the stuff I talked about here. Put this thing aside and just make lots and lots
of little programs. If they don't work, debug them, even if that takes you all night or longer. Than come back to this. And don't bother trying to find help. There are only very few people who know CASL/COMET assembly, and if you can figure it out yourself you learn more.

Remember, you don't have to start coding something big, as long as you code _something_! And CASL/COMET so far is only used in the examinations. I doubt if it would be really used in actual programming or commissioning. Don't expect to learn everything in this tutorial within a few days, I would say that if you can do it in 4 months or so you are doing great.

Quote:
The only good is knowledge and the only evil ignorance. - Socrates

 

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