1.1 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN PAKISTAN
1.2  HAZARDOUS INDUSTRIAL WASTES
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
1.5 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
1.6 NON GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs)
1.7 CLEANER TECHNOLOGY
1.8 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
1.9 LEATHER PRODUCTION AND ITS MASS BALANCE
1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TANNING PROCESSES
1.11 HEALTH HAZARDS OF CHROME TANNING
1.12 TANNING INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN
1.13 TANNING INDUSTRY IN KASUR
1.14 HEALTH IMPACTS OF TANNING INDUSTRY IN KASUR
1.15 EXPECTED OUTCOMES OF THIS RESEARCH
1.16 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1.17 KASUR CITY PROFILE
1.18 POPULATION DENSITY AND POLLUTED AREAS
1.19 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT IN KASUR

Environmental issues in Pakistan have been marked by unanimity of two important concerns originating out of unhealthy effects of unplanned development and environmentally visionless industrial projects. Unplanned human settlements present a vicious concatenation of pollution and environmental deterioration on account of a number of factors coupled with lack of sanitation facilities and clean drinking water. Water pollution has assumed serious proportions on account of untreated effluents of industries and municipal sewage into the water bodies in many cities of the country. The tanning industry is prominent among such industries and Kasur is the worst example in Asia among such cities.

1.1 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN PAKISTAN

The rapid growth in the country has led to serious problems of inadequate infrastructure and basic services, transportation, emergence of slums and unplanned industrial growth. There has been rapid deterioration of living conditions in urban areas particularly in large cities. Presently a majority of the city dwellers are living in unplanned congested localities created due to the haphazard industries without adequate public utilities and social services (Government of Pakistan, 1991).

Another important reason for this urban chaos and decay is financial inadequacy of the civic bodies. As the large urban centers grow bigger they tend to become poorer in the fact of intensifying problems. Strategies in the past to tackle the problem were directed more compulsions, where plans were prepared, but seldom executed in full. Moreover, research and training facilities in urban development and environment management remained practically nil (Government of Pakistan, 1991).

The main reason for the deteriorating urban situation, among other things, has been the low priority of spatial considerations in development programs of the government. Little emphasis has been laid on regional and integrated development. There has been practically no coordination or integration of economic planning with social planning; particularly control of planning legislation at national, provincial and local levels has led to haphazard development between industrialization and urbanization policies. The poor implementation, overlapping functions and geographical jurisdictions have created acute management and implementation problems (Government of Pakistan, 1991).

In Pakistan, the local institutions for the protection of environmental and natural resources are quite weak and official agencies have not ever been able to fill this institutional vacuum at the local level. The ultimate result comes out with a myriad of problems including vanishing forest and agriculture, air and water pollution, haphazard industrial development with chemically polluted and obnoxious effluents thus resulting a diverse impact on both human health and urban environment.

Hazardous waste is now emerging as an environmental problem in an increasing number of countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The direct use of chemicals is not the only cause of conditions inimical to the environment: their uncontrolled disposal as waste is another. Although chemical products are rendering innumerable benefits, their careless use and unregulated proliferation can give rise to mixed blessings (UNDP, 1992).

Man-made chemicals, whether hazardous or not, inevitably find their way into the environment. Some, like dioxins, can be released unexpectedly, as in sudden accidents. Exposure by human beings to chemicals can be by inhalation, by ingestion or through contact with their body surface. By far, however, food (including drinking water) is the paramount source of exposure. Toxic chemicals take diverse routes to reach human food: by passing from soil to plants, and thence via herbivorous animals to meat or milk, or what is more popularly known as a “food chain”, as well as during preparation or processing (UNDP, 1992).

Generally speaking, however, laws to control industrial, agricultural and domestic chemicals in the region are still traditionally limited to occupational hazards and specific areas of use, such as pharmaceuticals, food and pesticides. Some form of related legislation is extended by law to control air and water quality in connection with waste disposal.

In the case of cancer and other kinds of delayed health hazards, the carcinogen, the exposure, the latent period, the environmental factors involved and the ultimate disease is seldom apparent, if not impossible to establish (UNDP, 1992). The leather industry uses a wide range of chemicals which may subsequently appear in liquid, sludge or solid waste arising from various tanning processes such as cleaning, chemical surface treatment and dying.

If untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate, the decomposition of the organic materials it contains can lead to the production of large quantities of malodorous gases. In addition, untreated wastewater usually contains numerous pathogenic, or disease-causing, microorganisms that dwell in the human intestinal tract or that may be present in certain industrial waste. Wastewater also contains nutrients, which can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, and it may contain toxic compounds. For these reasons, the immediate and nuisance-free removal of wastewater from its sources of generation, followed by treatment and disposal, is not only desirable but also necessary in an industrialized society (UNDP, 1992).

It can be argued that because there is little public awareness of environmental concerns there is a corresponding lack of public support in the shape of a grassroots network of green egos or people’s movements in Pakistan. This is partly true. But part of the reason for low awareness is the weakening of a co-operative ethic: the sense of doing something collectively for the community’s welfare. It is important to understand the reasons for the absence of this ethic, and to see them as an environmental problem (Government of Pakistan, 1992).

Creating awareness among the people and activating them, through the most critical aspect of problem, is only one of the many steps taken. It is the first to be mentioned because success in this regard means winning half the battle. Increasing public awareness of toxic chemicals is hindered by the inadequacy of accurate and objective information. The toxicity of some chemicals is cumulative and appears only after prolonged exposure at dosage levels too low to create immediate effects. Some of these substances are found in the region. Benzene, for example, can cause cancer and yet appear perfectly innocuous at the time of exposure (UNDP, 1992).

Environmental education is man-centered because it is education for living. It is not education for science or for philosophy, or for vocations, or for art, or for crisis. We do not use the environment to teach about history. We use history to teach about environment (US Department of the Interior, 1970).

Any development must be in harmony with our environment because our environment and economy are interdependent. We cannot continue to develop economically unless we protect the environment and this means starting with education. The importance of educational programs that are supportive of sustainable development is critical if we are to be prepared to meet the environmental protection and economic development needs of tomorrow (Derkach, 1990). The Brundtland Commission on Environment and Development, in its 1987 report, Our Common Future, states its conclusion in no uncertain terms:

“It is impossible to separate economic development issues from environmental and educational issues; many forms of development erode the environmental resources upon which they must be based, and environmental degradation undermines economic development.”

The report concludes that they are environmental, economic, and educational challenges really are but one challenge, which can only be resolved by a common pursuit, sustainable development.

Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop the skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the inter-relatedness among man, his culture, and his biophysical surroundings. Environmental education also entails practice in decision making and self-formulation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality (Cerovsky, 1971).

This statement is widely accepted, but it is not simple and needs thoughtful reading. Environmental education helps in understanding the society’s environmental problems and also the processes of environmental problem solving and decision-making. Teaching the ecological relationships and principles underlying these problems and showing the possible alternative approaches and solutions does this.

Action and commitment are required at all levels in the education system. Environmental education should be part of all educational curricula. Schools, colleges and universities need to integrate and emphasize the principles of sound development throughout each of their programs of studies. This means expanding programs to address the environmental education needs of learners of all ages, all walks of life, and all sectors of the community. Programs must be designed to reflect the multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies, encouraging students to think critically about problems, to form opinions, to shape beliefs, and to make choices that contribute to quality of life (Derkach, 1990).

One of the important features of the EIA process is ‘public participation’. It is obvious that the process of public participation can only proceed if the public is involved very early in the assessment process (Nor, 1991).

The process should have the mechanism that permits the public to request an environmental assessment, and to comment on impact assessment that may result. Sheikh (1993), quotes a Thai official as saying:

  “No, we cannot have the public: every time we have the public we get a mob”,
“If you involve the public too early, they will always say ‘no’ to the project”.

This shows a genuine lack of confidence on the part of the government officials and environmental professionals in the ability of local publics to participate in an informed way in the project planning stage. However the question of ‘who participates’ is a complicated one, whether the people immediately affected by the project or those residing down stream. This has to be very carefully assessed (Sheikh, 1993).

There is no tradition of public participation in project analysis.... A public inquiry is costly in time and public funds... Governments in the Caribbean are project-oriented and it is unlikely that they will agree to most public sector projects being further delayed by such a process...(Gill’s 1985 cited in Sheikh, 1993). This however does not outline the participants to be included in the meetings.

The assumption might be that all the interested/affected groups are present. This however does not hold true in an economy like Pakistan, owing to a variety of reasons. People in this part of the world are more attracted to the potential economic benefits of the project. They foresee long awaited employment opportunities and other improvements in living standard because of installation of network infrastructure. This warrants a systematic approach in identifying the suitable groups in the community, capable of effective participation.

Pongquan (1992) lists the potential participants that range from members of the local area to elected representatives of the community. The list also includes residents/ non-resident government personal as well as resident and non-resident outsiders.

Public representatives, the lowest in the hierarchy, confirm the earlier held view (Parenteau 1989), of limited mandate on part of elected members, settling local residents as the most appropriate faction of the community to be invited for representation. This however does not overlook the relatively well-informed government personnel, second in the hierarchy (Pongquan 1992).

This leads to another debate on the representative members of the community. Here two considerations of representatives and information have to be made. The potential participants should represent the community and also should be capable of productive participation. This requires an inquiry into the level of awareness on the part of the participants, on the project as well as the impacts thereof. Drawing a community profile can be of great advantage in this respect. This gives an overall structure of the population, giving information on the levels of literacy and awareness.

NGOs have grown at an unprecedented rate in the last ten to fifteen years and now are shifting from their traditional role of being relief and welfare agencies to taking on a larger role in development work (Theunis 1992; Williams 1990). They are active both in the industrialized world and in developing countries in raising funds for development and providing other forms of assistance, and have become the richest source of innovations and initiatives (OECD 1990; Perlman 1990).

The emergence of these organizations has led to the proposition that there are three interlocking and interdependent systems: the state, the market, and community-based systems which are non-governmental and non-commercial (Turner 1988). NGOs, along with CBOs, area considered to be the principal types of “third sector” organizations (UNDP 1992).

NGOs have played a prominent role in the environmental movement from its earliest beginnings. NGOs and citizens’ groups pioneered in the creation of public awareness and political pressures that stimulated governments to act. Today, many national “State of the Environment” reports are being published by NGOs (UNCRD 1993).

Many local NGOs in developing countries have demonstrated new participatory ways to work with community organizations in improving environmental conditions in poor neighborhoods. The classic example is the work of NGOs in community health and primary health care, which became the basis for the formulation of national and international policies and programs in the field of health (Tandon 1989).

Local enterprises in general and small and medium size enterprises in particular play an important role in the creation of job opportunities for increasing urban population, helping them to become healthy consumers of local products. Nevertheless their production processes are often inefficient, wasting raw materials and energy. On one hand it causes poor industrial hygiene and pollution of surrounding living environment, impairing the health of workers and citizens. On the other hand, it impedes local enterprises’ productivity improvement and communities’ economic development.

Traditionally, industrial pollution has been tackled with a curative approach by the use of waste treatment technologies, which are often called “end-of-pipe (EOP) technologies”. These technologies mean purely additional costs for industries and their use is likely to erode the competitiveness of local industries. This is the reason why wastes are often dumped into the nearby environment without any treatment in many developing countries (UNCRD, 1993).

Clean Production (CP) is the production process, which would incur more efficient use of raw materials and energy with less waste generation than the existing production process. Waste here means gaseous, liquid and/or solid waste. CP would reduce operating costs and increase profits. Payback period of CP measures is often less than one year.

CP can be defined in various ways(Sakurai, 1993). The following is the CP definition by Oldenburg of UNEP IE/PAC:

? CP is the continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy to processes and products so as to reduce risks to humans and the environmental;
? For processes, this means conserving raw materials and energy, eliminating toxic raw materials, and reducing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and waste before they leave a process; and
? For Products, cleaner production means to reduce impacts along the entire product life cycle, from raw materials extraction to disposal after reuse. Cleaner production is achieved by applying know-how, by improving technology, and/or by changing management attitudes.

The distinguishing factors of a Geographic Information System (GIS) from other types of information systems is its spatial analysis functions, which uses both spatial and attribute data to answer questions pertaining to the real world. Overlay functions of GIS allow combining different layers of map information thus enabling the analysis of relationships among different types of data (Aronoff, 1989).

GIS is a computer-based decision support system to collect, store, analyze, retrieve and display all forms of spatially referenced information. It is designed to analyze objects and phenomena where geographic location in the real world is an important characteristic to the analysis (Aronoff, 1989). GIS are different from other automated information system in the sense that they accommodate spatial information necessary in management of resources over space and time (Jordan, 1991). The capability of GIS to perform space and time-related analysis is a powerful tool in determining changes, e.g. demographic change. Further, it makes possible movement from static mapping to dynamic mapping (Keller, 1991). In this sense, Traub (1992) described GIS as a powerful tool for resource managers and land use planners in monitoring and analyzing changes through time for a particular location or phenomena.

Prior to the introduction of computers, geographic data have been stored, manipulated and presented in the form of a map. The geographic data were represented as points, lines and polygons drawn in ink on a piece of paper or film. Simply overlaying a series of maps upon each other on a light table performed spatial analysis of thematic maps. This method of studying spatial covariance was popular since the availability of transparent paper. Production of physical maps is relatively easy for small amounts of data. However, this process is tedious and inefficient when large volume of data are involved (Aronoff, 1989). Moreover, this procedure is time consuming and makes map revision and updating more expensive (Rajan, 1991). The problem of using different scales is another limitation of paper maps because areas that is relatively larger than the scale has to be represented by a series of maps.

The availability of computers in the 1970’s began the development of computer-based geographic information system. Large volume of data are efficiently handled and analyzed. Geo-referenced maps of different scales and projections can be precisely merged and overlaid and quickly updated when needed.

A computer based geographic information system has four important components: computer hardware, sets of application software, geographic data, and proper organisation (Burrough, 1986). Traub (1992), pointed out the latter two as more crucial for a successful GIS than the technology itself, which are readily available in the world market. GIS platforms are available from personal to personal computer (PC) up to mainframe. GIS software is generally classified into two geocoding systems: vector and raster. A vector system stores geographic data, e.g. points, lines and polygons, as a set of real world co-ordinates, whereas in raster systems, data are handled as rectangular arrays of square cells. However, some GIS are capable of handling both formats and allow conversion from one format to another.

The development of GIS has developed so fast (Yeh, 1991) that it is already accepted as a management tool for resource managers and land use planners. This is because digital mapping and data storage capabilities of GIS allow rapid monitoring and analysis of changes through time for a given location. At present, information management, presentation and graphics capabilities of GIS have been widely emphasised.

The process involved in land use planning is very diverse and complex which resulted to some operational and methodological constraints. Fresco, et el. (1990) and Van Fiepen, et al. (1991) identified some of these constraints: (i) complexity of the system and decision environment; (ii) requirements of high quality experts; (iii) different data formats; (iv) lack of tools for analysis and integration; (v) inconsistency between the available and needed data; and (vi) operational constraints.

Leather is tanned animal hide or skin free of hair and subcutaneous tissue. Tanning is a durable preservation of perishable biological material. The transformation of hides and skins into leather, which contains the original fibrous structure, involves the removal of a great part of hide substances like hair, soluble proteins, epidermis, fat, flesh, blood, etc., by mechanical and chemical processes. To facilitate this works, to save time and water and to confer desired characteristics to the end product, a multitude of chemicals are employed. The combination of excess chemicals and their transformation products, residues of the hide substances dissolved or suspended in water compose the different effluents, solid wastes and by-products of the leather production. One ton of rawhides yield an average of 0.2 ton leather, up to 0.6 ton solid wastes and by-products and about 50 cubic meter effluents. Figure 1.1 gives an overview.

Due to the variety of recipes used by tanneries an exact mass balance must be calculated for each plant in particular. Figure 1.2 shows the processes of leather production, which may be used as guide for practical tannery evaluation, e.g. an environmental audit of a leather factory.

The principal environmental concern of the actually applied tanning techniques originates mainly from the excess of tanning agents. Significant quantities of the offered chemicals are not fixed in the collagen, and, thus, either remain in the “spent float”, are squeezed off during the sammying operation or are washed out by the wet finishing float. Another part of the offered tanning agents is wasted within the solid residues produced by some mechanical works, which are performed after tanning (shaving, trimming, and buffing).

Nevertheless, any manual or industrial production has to be considered as a whole. There is input and out put, and besides the product aimed at, there are by-products, which are more or less useful or harmful for our lives. To pin point the problem, it is necessary not only to look at a process of manufacturing as a means to produce a product, but also to consider the possible impact on human, consumers and workers, and environment. The objective is to become aware of this phenomenon and to act the responsible keeping a balance of input and output, of useful or harmful components of the whole procedure of manufacturing. This method of looking very comprehensively at manual or industrial processes has to be considered seriously, especially in the image of leather as a natural product.

Chromium in the Environment

Chromium compounds occur in a variety of industrial wastewaters and potentially may enter surface water and groundwater supplies. Wastewaters from electroplating operations, leather tanning, and textile manufacturing represent the types of chromium-containing streams that may ultimately enter surface and groundwater (Hartford, 1979).

Solid waste streams containing Cr (VI) constitute the primary problem area involving chromium sold waste (Hartford, 1979). Wastes resulting from the roasting and leaching steps in the chromate manufacturing process traditionally contain residual Cr (VI). If landfilled, the residual Cr (VI) can slowly leach into surrounding waters via desorption and disproportionation (Hartford, 1979).

Little information exists in the literature regarding he nature of the chemical species present in the atmosphere away from obvious sources of pollution. Under normal conditions, Cr (III) and Cr (O) are relatively unreactive in the atmosphere (Towill et al., 1978). Cr (VI) in air may react with particulate matter or gaseous pollutants to form Cr (III) (NAS, 1974). However, these atmospheric reactions have not been extensively studied.

Low concentration of chromium enters the atmosphere as a result of industrial activities and soil-derived aerosols (Towill et al., 1978). Chromium is removed from air through wet and dry depositions. Chromium concentration in a wet deposition many vary from 0.004 to 0.060 ?g/ml and 0.0006 to 0.034 ?g/l for urban and rural areas, respectively (Towill et al., 1978). The precipitated chromium from the air enters the surface water or soil.

Chromium particles of aerodynamic equivalent diameter <20?m may remain airborne for long periods and may be transported great distance by wind currents and diffusion forces (Sehmel and Hodgson. 1976). Therefore, atmospheric conditions play an important role in determining the chromium concentration around emission sites; however, no data relating atmospheric chromium content to atmospheric or meteorological conditions could be found in the literature.

Chromium in Soil

Most soil chromium is in mineral, absorbed or precipitated form. Chromium probably occurs as the insoluble Cr (III) oxide (Cr2O3.nH2O) in soil, as the organic matter in soil is expected to reduce any soluble chromate to insoluble Cr2O3. Chromium in soil can be transported to the atmosphere by way of aerosol formation (John et al., 1973; Zoller et al., 1974).

Chromium is also transported from soil through runoff and leaching of water. Runoff could remove both chromium ions and bulk precipitates of chromium with final deposition on either a different land area or a water bodies. In addition, flooding of soils and the subsequent anaerobic decomposition of plant matters may increase dissolution of Cr (III) oxides in the soil (Towill et al., 1978).

The chemical form of chromium in air depends on the source of emission. The majority of chromium in the atmosphere, originating from such source is usually in the Cr (III) or Cr (O) state.

Effects of Chromium on Health

The effects of both Cr (III) and Cr (VI) have been studied in man and animals (USEPA, 1984). Both long-term and short-term exposure conditions have been investigated, but most of the long-term exposures have focused on carcinogenic effects. From the studies of USEPA on the carcinogenic effects of Chromium are summarized as follow.

The trivalent compounds of Chromium tend to cross biological membranes fairly easily, and are somewhat more readily absorbed through the gut or though the skin. The strong oxidizing powers of Cr (VI) compounds explain much of their irritating and toxic properties.

The effects of chromium on the skin were recognized over 150 years ago. Many chromium compounds can damage the skin, but metallic chromium or chromium alloys are chemically inert and are not harmful. Cr (VI) derivatives can cause ulcers of the hands and accompanying perforations of the nasal septum.

Effects on the upper respiratory tract have been observed in workers in chromium related industries. The major effects of chromium on this system include ulceration of the nasal septum, with subsequent perforation, and chromic rhinitis and pharangitis.

Cr has also been found to the reproductive effects on the workers and Cr (III) and Cr (VI) can cross the placental barrier in animals and enter the fetus during mid to late gestation. The fetal uptake of Cr (VI), however is much greater than that of Cr (III).

The epidemiological studies of chromate production workers have domesticated as association of exposure to chromium compounds with respiratory cancer. The strength of the association is evidenced by the high relative risks of lung cancer.

Using the criteria of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the epidemiological studies of chromate production workers would be classified as showing sufficient evidence of carcinogenicty.

Several hexavalent chromium compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic in cancer bioassay studies.

Animal cancer bioassay studies suggest that hexavalent chromium compounds (particularly soluble and sparingly soluble compounds) are probably the etiologic agent in chromium related human cancer.

The lifetime cancer risk due to air containing 1.0 ?g/m3 of hexavalent chromium compounds is estimated to be 1.2 ?10-2.

Past exposure to low levels of chromium may be associated with higher than normal levels of chromium in the blood, urine and hair. In hair samples, the relationships are tenuous in young children and women, as a result of variation in chromium levels related to age and pregnancy (Creason et al., 1975). In blood and urine, marked variations have been reported in the linearity between exposure levels and the levels in body fluids as a result of sequestering and release of chromium from body depots.

Chromium in Blood

Chromium is absorbed through both the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts (U.S. EPA, 1978). In the respiratory tract, water and serum soluble chromates are absorbed into the blood system, whereas insoluble Cr(III) particles and the inert oxides and hydroxides of Cr(III) remain in lung tissue (U.S. EPA, 1978). In the blood stream, chromium compounds are bound by proteins (Gray and Sterling, 1950). It has been shown that ionic Cr(VI) (injected intravenously) passes through the membrane of red blood cells and binds to the globin moiety of hemoglobin. Once inside the erythrocyte, Cr (VI) compounds are rapidly reduced to Cr (III) and are unable to pass through the cell membrane (Aaseth et al., 1983). In healthy red cells, Cr (III) is partially bound to hemoglobin and partially to small molecular weight substances. Chromium disappears quickly from the blood and is taken up by other issues in he body, where it is concentrated much more heavily (by a factor of 10 to 100) than in the blood. Therefore, blood levels of chromium may not be a usable indicator of chromium nutritional status (Mertz, 1969; Mertz and Roginski, 1971).

Routes of Chromium Absorption

An important route of exposure to chromium compounds is through inhalation of chromium containing aerosols. In general, during inhalation (and exhalation) a portion of the inhaled aerosol may be deposited by contact with airway surfaces or be transferred to unexhaled air. The portion transferred to unexhaled air may be either deposited by contact with airway surfaces or later exhaled. These phenomena are complicated by interactions that may occur between the particles, other gases and the water vapor present in the airways (U.S. EPA, 1982). As such, the deposition and retention patterns for chromium aerosols depend on the size and solubility of the particular chromium compound.

Acute Effects of Chromium Exposure in Man and Animals

Chromium metal is biologically inert and has not been reported to produce toxic or other harmful effects in man. When in contact with the skin, compounds of chromium in the trivalent state combine with proteins in the superficial layers, but do not cause ulceration (NAS, 1974).

Cr(VI) compounds are responsible for the majority of the health problems associated with all chromium compounds. They are irritating and corrosive, and may be absorbed by inhalation, cutaneously, or by ingestion. Acute systemic poisoning is rare; however, it may follow deliberate or accidental ingestion or result from absorption through broken skin (NAS, 1974).

Much of the information on the effects of Cr(VI) is obtained from occupational exposures, where the predominant exposures and related effects are on the respiratory system and skin (NAS, 1974). As with most information derived from uncontrolled settings, exact knowledge about length of exposure, concentration of the chemical, and other variables are not known, making quantitative dose-effect relationships difficult.

Cr(III) compounds have a very low order of toxicity when administered orally. Oral LD50 values for the rats have been reported as follows: chromic chloride, 1.87 g/kg; chromium acetate, 11.26 g/kg; chromium nitrate, 3.25 g/kg

Cr(VI) is more acutely toxic than Cr(III). A primary effect of acute exposures is kidney failure. Oral administration of high doses results in gastric corrosion. The oral LD50 of sodium dichromate in humans has been reported as 50 mg/kg (NIOSH, 1979).

Kidney effects are the primary result of acute exposures to chromium by various routes. The kidneys from animals given potassium dichromate showed marked congestion and the walls of he small blood vessels were thickened. Glomerular tufts were shrunken in some places, while proliferation of endothelial cells, obliterating the Bowman space, was seen in others. There was necrosis and desquamation of the epithelium of the convoluted tubules. Red blood cells were found in the intertubular spaces. Changes were similar whether animals were exposed for 3 or 6 weeks.

In summary, the kidney appears to be the main target for acute chromium toxicity, with effects occurring at 1-2 mg Cr(VI)/kg body weight. Although hepatic effects have also been observed, the kidney has received the most intense study.

Effect of Chromium on Skin

Chromic acid and the chromates are powerful skin irritants, and, in lower concentrations, the chromates are sensitizers (NAS, 1974). Workmen exposed to the steam of boiling dichromate solutions developed an acute primary irritant contact dermatitis (Schwartz et at., 1957; White, 1934). White (1934) described a diffuse erythematous dermatosis that resulted from dichromate; some progressed to an exudative phase.

Various chromium compounds have been implicated in giving rise to allergic dermatitis with varying degree of eczema. Pakhurst (1925) reported the case of a women employed in blueprint production using a process in which a 1% potassium dichromate solution used as a fixative. A 0.5% potassium dichromate solution was rubbed on the right thigh of the woman, and soon after the application, there was a local sensation of itching and burning. Twelve hours later, the patient developed follicular erythematopapular dermatitis at the exposure site. Itching and burning was reported when a similar application was made to the left thigh.

Smith (1931) reported a case of chromium sensitization in a man who had been hospitalized after occupational exposure to ammonium dichromate. The patient had ulceration in the skin of both hands, and complained of asthma, and muscular weakness and tenderness. He had a previous history of asthma and hay fever and had further asthmatic attacks upon exposure to chromium.  Following a patch test with 1% ammonium dichromate solution on a 1 cm2 area of normal skin on his forearm, the man developed a mild erythema after24 hours. After 3 days, the erythematous area doubled in size, and there was the appearance of vesicles.

Although the tanning industry ranks third in the export earnings of Pakistan, but the uncontrolled and haphazard mushrooming growth of this industry has resulted as a serious threat to the urban life and sustainability of cities. This industry uses a wider rang of chemicals which may subsequently apparent in liquid, sludge or solid waste arising from various tanning processes of cleaning, chemical surface treatment and dying etc. These untreated effluents are usually gathered into big ponds around the industrial areas and pose both direct and indirect health hazards to the population and environment. These effluents contain high chemical and biological pollution load. The nauseating smell permeates the air and the city's inhabitants suffer from serious diseases including lung cancer in some cases. These tanning industries are concentrated in Karachi, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Kasur and some other cities. Kasur is the worst example in context of health hazards. Its landscape has been devastated by chromium and other materials used in the tanning process. The ground water is no more drinkable and the air is fouled with pollutants released by numerous ancillary processes. The problem is how the local environmental catastrophe can be improved through health management ensuring sustainable development in such cities.

Kasur, with a population of around 250000 inhabitants is a city in Pakistan, whose name has become inextricably linked with the tanning industry that has existed there for several years. Tanning industry ranks third in export earnings in Pakistan and Kasur ranks second, but environmentally it is notorious as the worst polluter.

Highly polluted effluent generated by about 200 tanneries, concentrated within the urban fringe area of Kasur, has degraded the environmental conditions in the area, posing a major health hazard to the residents. The effluent discharged by these tanneries with high chemical and biological pollution load, with no drainage, has also rendered a big stretch of fertile land in to lakes of stagnant wastewater. A nauseating smell permeates the air and the city’s inhabitants suffer from eye diseases, skin irritations and gastrointestinal maladies. Lung cancer has also been diagnosed as the cause of death in some cases.

According to an estimation, out of a total volume of about 9,000 cubic meter per day of tannery effluent, some 2,500 cubic meters are discharged to the river Satluj, through a natural drain and the rest goes to stagnant pools. Along the route to the river, the effluent seeps into the tube wells. The dangerous chemicals contained in the wastewater pollute the crops grown in the area, particularly vegetables, which are easily affected. The other severe effects include health hazards to both human and animal life to a greater extent (IUCN, 1993).

According to Tanners Association, Kasur, around 15,000 people are working in tanneries. But as revealed by different community members 40-50% of tanners are not members of the Tanners Association. Many people are involved in one or other tanning process within their houses. A large number of people, particularly women are involved with the potentially hazardous process of sheep hair handling. In addition to this, it is very difficult to estimate the number of employees, as most of them are contract labor. According to a rough estimate about 50000 people are directly involved with one or the other process within the tanning industry and most of them live in the polluted area (IUCN 1993).

According to an observation, communities are exposed to bad odour, contaminated/odorous/unpalatable ground water, and dust from the buffing processes, dust, hairs (and most probable many allergens) and fumes from different hazardous processes such as “chrome formation”. There are about 50,000 to 60,000 people environmentally exposed, a number which is increasing with increasing population density and which might further increase if reclaimed land is used to build more tanneries.

According to a report of Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR) on Kasur, the entire wastewater from the industries, without any pre-treatment, is being discharged on the virgin land covering an area of about 15 sq. km of which some area was previously under cultivation and now the same has been converted into dirty pools. This wastewater in extending its limits by way of bringing under a vast stretch of agricultural land. The residents immediately affected by the wastewater are estimated at over 10,000. The sub-soil water in the affected area is around 6-7 meters deep from the ground surface. Due to the high porosity of the soil, groundwater is rapidly contaminated from this wastewater. As many as 10,000 people are getting drinking water from the hand pumps and electric motor pumps sunk in this polluted aquifer.

The effluents from tanning industry are adversely affecting human life, agriculture and livestock in Kasur. The residents, especially the tannery workers have been the victims of this pollution, which has lead to severe ailments such as eye diseases, skin irritations, kidney failure and gastrointestinal problems. According to the official report of the Environmental Protection Department Punjab (1997), the drinking water supplied by the municipality in Kasur was found polluted with a high level of chromium. The WHO standard for the acceptable amount of Chromium in drinking water is 0.05 mg/l. The ground water has been stated polluted with chromium up to 5 times of the WHO standard with a varying depth of up to 165 meters. Even the water provided in the District Headquarters Hospital Kasur is inappropriate for drinking purpose in terms of both coliform bacteria and dissolved chromium. Chromium, extensively used in tanning process, is carcinogenic. Cancer found as cause of death in some cases can be linked to chromium pollution in the groundwater.

In another research carried out by the authors (1997), it was found that in the year 1995, 173,107 outdoor and 6,306 indoor patients visited the government health facilities in Kasur. On the other hand 7,500 animals were taken to the veterinary hospital in the year 1995. (Government of Punjab, 1996). In eighty private clinics of the city, a total of 548,100 outdoor and 394 indoor patients visited doctors for various ailments (Government of Punjab, 1996). The large number of visits reflects the intensity of pollution related diseases. The diseases found, among the workers of tanning industry and residents of Kasur, were skin irritation, diarrhea, heart burning, respiratory tract infection, sever cough, fever and loss of eyesight. Lung cancer, high blood pressure, and kidney failure were the reported causes of death in many cases.

The epidemiological studies of tanning workers have demonstrated as association of exposure to chromium compounds with respiratory cancer. The strength of the association is evidenced by the high relative risks of lung cancer (USEPA, 1984). Exposure of Cr (VI) has been associated primarily with renal damage. For humans no quantitative evidence of acute toxicity through oral ingestion has been reported. In various animal species, singly injections of 2 mg/kg caused cellular and structural damage in the kidneys (USEPA, 1984). Allergic contact dermatitis may arise from exposure to either trivalent or hexavalent chromium. Cr (VI) penetrates undamaged skin, and subsequently reduces to Cr (III) which combines with proteins or other skin components to form a whole skin allergin.

This research is justified on the basis of an imperative need to evaluate the impact of environmental pollution on the health of tannery workers and the residents of Kasur. This research may considerably contribute to the attempts of United National Development Program (UNDP) for environmental improvement in Kasur, Municipal Committee Kasur and NGOs like Hamza Foundation and Anjuman Farogh e Taleem, to achieve the objectives of health management and sustainable development in Kasur. This research will be quite helpful for health assessment and health management process in other industrially polluted cities in Pakistan. This research may also contribute as the proposal to the health management action plan carried out by NGOs in Kasur.

1. To assess the general health condition of the tannery workers and the residents in Kasur.
2. To know the level of awareness of the general public, tannery workers, factory owners, students and teachers about the prevailing environmental degradation and its impacts on their health.

Given the complex and difficult nature of these environmental issues, this research may contribute to the process of health management of environmentally sound and sustainable development in the cities of Pakistan with deleterious impact of tanning industries and may provide a base for Health Management Action Plan for Kasur city.

LOCATION

Kasur, one of the districts of Punjab province, is bounded on the north by Lahore district, on the south and east by the Indian districts of Ferozepur and Amritsar respectively, and on the west by Sahiwal district. Kasur city is located on the Ferozepur road at a distance of about 55 km. from Lahore to the south and about 25 km from Ferozepur, situated in India to its north. Kasur is well connected to Lahore by road and also by rail, which takes off from the Raiwind junction and runs up to Lodhran. Before partition, it was also linked by rail with Amritsar and Ferozepur city in India (Government of Pakistan, 1980). The location of the study area is shown in Figure 1.3.
 

History

Kasur is one of the oldest cities of Pakistan. In ancient times, it was just a small settlement with katcha houses on the northern bank of the old river Beas. According to an estimate Kasur was a big village in 1 AD. In 553 AD this was occupied by Khaweshgan. In 1020 AD, Kasur was included in the territory of Lahore, which was the capital of the state under Raja Jaipal (Government of Pakistan, 1980).

When Emperor Babar captured the whole of India in 1526 AD, he gave this city to the Afghans as a token of their service towards his victory. During the reign of Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb, Kasur was glorified and every rich man constructed his own palace in Kasur. In 1830 AD Maharaja Ranjeet Singh captured Kasur and it was under Sikh Rule by the year 1957 when the British took over control of India.

At that time, Kasur was given the status of a sub-division and was included in Lahore Civil Division. The Raiwind-Ganda Singhwala Railway Line was laid in 1883 whereas the Kasur-Lodhran Railway Line was completed in 1910, thereby connecting the town with the rail network. During this period, Kasur served as an important commercial as well as industrial center of the area (Government of Pakistan, 1980)

After independence in 1947, industrial and commercial activities were re-established and Kasur contributed more and more towards the national economy. In 1976, Kasur was given the status of district headquarters and subsequently a number of local offices were established. But due to uncontrolled and haphazard development of tanning industries, the city is under a state of environmental degradation and there is a severe threat to both people and natural resources in Kasur.

Climate

The area falls under ‘Semi-Arid Sub-Tropical Climatic Zone’ with intense summer heat and cold winters. In April the temperature rises fast and the two succeeding months i.e. May and June are the hottest with an average temperature of about 41ºC, and sometimes it rises even up to 45ºC. The monsoon season starts at the end of June and remains to the middle of September but the mean minimum temperature remains steady at about 36ºC. January is the coldest month with a mean minimum temperature of about 5ºC.

The rainfall of the area is subject to large variations from year to year. The average annual rainfall is about 490 millimeters. About two thirds of the total annual rain falls during the monsoon season. Light to moderate rain also occurs during January and February. The area is under the influence of monsoon winds. In winter season its direction is north and northwest and in summer southeast. Westerly storms or cyclones usually disturb the wind direction.

Soil and Agriculture

This area is generally known as Hithar of Sutlej River. The soil is mostly soft alluvial. There is much sandy waste towards the river on which sarkanda or river jungle naturally grows abundantly and is used as cattle fodder. The menace of water logging has taken place in the Raiwind area and threatens to assume serious proportions in other parts of the district as well. Wheat is the most important Rabi Crop and occupies about 39% of the total cropped area. It is grown largely on the canal-irrigated and flood-watered land. The second important crop is fodder, occupying about 22% of the total cropped area. The main crops grown during Kharif are cotton and sugarcane. (Government of Pakistan, 1980).

Demography

Kasur, the second largest leather producing center in Pakistan after Karachi, reflects a steady growth of population. The population data is available since 1901. It is observed that the population of Kasur in 1901 was 22020 persons, which became 155523 in 1981, thereby registering 8 times increase in the period of eight decades. The population data available in different census periods is shown in Table 1.1.
 

Industrial Growth

Kasur has grown very fast in respect of industry in general and tanning industry in particular. The industrial growth accelerated during last twenty years. The industry include power looms, saw machines, wooden furniture and tanneries. The industrial growth in the city is shown in Table 1.2.

Employment perspective

The tanning industry and power looms are predominantly labour intensive industries thus employing a major portion of the job opportunities to the residents of Kasur. The total of 1580 industrial units is employing about 9,775 workers, which are about 3.74% of the total population of Kasur. Majority of industries has workers ranging form one to four, thus reflecting the scale of industrial activities. It is summarised in Table 1.3.

The overwhelming majority of industrial units mainly comprise of medium and small-scale units. Table 1.4 reflects the distribution of industries by the type, employment and area of each industry in the city. The largest number of unit are attributed to power looms where as tanneries rank second. But regarding the area occupied and the labour employed in tanning industry ranks first in the city. The power looms industry is very commonly established in the city and there is no distinction of residential and industrial area. Many industries are established in homes. This industry is causing noise pollution in the city. Woodworks and saw machines rank third and fourth respectively in terms of number of units and people employed.

Availability of Utility Services

The existing level of utility services present in Kasur is described as follows.

Electricity

Kasur is connected with Water and Power Development Authority’s (WAPDA) main grid system and a grid station having 132 K.V. line regulates supply to all electricity sections of the city. The grid station is located on Shahra-e-Quide-e-Azam with a total area of 9.15 acres. The total number of connections in the city is 38942 including 11,682 industrial/commercial connections. The detail is shown in Table 1.5.

Telephones

A telephone exchange with an area of 4 kanal is working in the city at Abdullah Khan road. The capacity of the exchange is 8,000 lines. Total number of 6,614 connections was provided to the public and 520 applications were pending. One public call office (P.C.O) in public sector and 8 in private sector are located in area of Lari Adda, Lalyani Adda, district headquarters hospital, Railway road, Railway station, Kot Murad khan, Mahatmanwala Gate and Kutchery road.

Water Supply

The municipal committee Kasur supplies the drinking water in the city. It serves almost 60% of total area of the municipality. The quality of drinking water is doubtful in respect of chemical and bacteriological aspects. The overall situation of water supply is very poor and it is likely not to fulfil the requirements of the entire population. Furthermore the drinking water quality is quite below the standards of World Health Organization (WHO). There is no commercial connection in the city whereas the city has lot of industrial activities. It reflects the poor management of the sanitary branch of the municipal committee.

Sewage System and Solid Waste Disposal

Municipal committee Kasur is responsible for provision and maintenance of sewage system of the city. The solid waste of the city is dumped openly at several places. The city presents a worst situation of ugly and unhealthy environment with no proper dumping sites. The staff for cleaning the open drain of sewer is not enough. The waste from industrial area is very hazardous and is scattered on the vast land lying vacant near polluted ponds.
 

1.18 POPULATION DENSITY AND POLLUTED AREAS

The total area of the municipal committee within its limits is 4,955 acres with a population of 237,744 persons. The city is divided into 39 zones (wards) by the municipality. If a general standard of 50 persons/acre (as prescribed by H&PP department Punjab) is taken as good population density for residential areas within each ward, there are only 10 wards qualifying this standard, and seven wards are on the other extreme with population density of higher than 200 persons per acre. The population density in each ward of the city is given in Table 1.7.

The big tracts of vacant land used for refuse disposal or discharge of industrial effluent is the reason behind comparatively low density in wards where tanning industry flourished in last several years. Ward number seven has highest value of population density i.e. 363 persons/acre. Ward number 12, 14, 15, and 17 are having clusters of tanning industry and people living here are heavily exposed to the chemical effluent discharged form these industries.
 

 Although the tanning industry contributes to a major share of employment in the city but due to mismanagement of municipal committee and other law enforcing agencies, the discharge of tanning industrial effluent without any treatment has brought severe threat to the life and the environment as well. The total discharge of tannery effluent, mixed with some household wastewater was measured by Pakistan Council of scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR) during a 24 hours period at some 135,291 cubic feet, which is equivalent to some 3,833 cubic meters.

A careful scrutinization of processing parameters (daily input in terms of number, weight of hides and skins, and water consumption per ton etc.) resulted in an estimated discharge of 4,264 cubic meters/day (1.72 cusec). This wastewater has affected vast agricultural land in villages namely Bangla Kumbo, Kaiser garh, Maan, Bahmni wala, Doley wala and Nazam pura. The wastewater is standing at about 210 acres of land at different spots in the above mentioned localities. The agricultural activities have also been stopped due to seepage in the nearby areas thus causing economic loss to the farmers. Table 1.8 gives an overview of the land affected by these polluted ponds.

1.19 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT IN KASUR

The chemical analysis of untreated industrial effluent was done by Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR) in 1989. All proposals for the on going project for installation of wastewater treatment plant in Kasur were based on this analysis report. The project had not been implemented for several years due to some political and financial reasons. Now the UNDP office in Pakistan, in collaboration with United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), Tannery’s Association Kasur, Provincial and Federal government of Pakistan, had finally started this project in 1996. The construction of treatment plant has not yet started instead all the polluted water is drained to river Sutlej without any treatment. This will bring havoc to aquaculture life in the river. The report of PCSIR mentioned in table 1.9. The sample of untreated effluent used during this investigation was a mixture of four samples collected at equal intervals of time within 24 hours from the point of final collective discharge before it enters the main channel leading to various disposal ponds (see appendix I). This process was repeated once every month for one year and results obtained were averaged. Side by side the water from the sewage was also analysed. According to results, the values of BOD5, COD, total solids, total dissolved solids, suspended solids, chromium, sulphides and sulphates were too high in the tannery wastewater than in the sewer water. The value of total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness and sulphates were also relatively higher in the tannery effluent as compared to their values for sewer.
 

The result shows that the concentration of polluting chemicals was quite higher than the acceptable levels as prescribed by the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) designed by the federal Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development. These standards are given in table 1.10. A comparison of industrial effluent with the NEQS is elaborated in figure 1.6.