2. PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM THE 1998-99
FIELD SEASONS IN LUWU BY THE OXIS PROJECT
(ORIGINS OF COMPLEX SOCIETY IN SOUTH SULAWESI)
F. David Bulbeck, Dept. of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University and Bagyo Prasetyo, Bidang Prasejarah, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional

Page 4

Conclusions
The "late chronology" for Luwu, proposed by Bulbeck (1993), is strongly confirmed by OXIS ' surveys and excavations. There is no archaeological evidence for the existence of a centralized polity in Kabupaten Luwu any earlier than the 14th century. Trading communities had been established at several places along the Luwu coastline by at least the 13th century, for instance at Tompe (near Dadekoe 2), Tambu-Tambu (near Wotu) and Katue, but they appear to have been small communities. Then, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the population in coastal Malangke appears to have exploded, largely through its attraction of new settlers, seeking opportunities, from as far away as South Sulawesi's south coast and Java. During these centuries, Luwu may well have been the largest kingdom in South Sulawesi, possibly rivalled by West Soppeng (Caldwell 1988, 1995) and Bantaeng (Bougas 1998). Luwu remained a prosperous kingdom, with its basis in coastal Malangke, throughout the 16th century, and until the relocation of its capital to Palopo in the early 1600s (see Caldwell 1995).

For some reason, a tradition of courtly literature does not appear to have developed in pre-Islamic Luwu to nearly the same degree that it became established in the other major Bugis kingdoms such as Bone, Wajo and West Soppeng. Without this historical information, it is currently difficult to identify the factors responsible for Luwu's 14th century rise, 15th century heyday, and continuing prosperity in the 16th century. The texts of the other Bugis kingdoms give some evidence that Luwu extended its suzerainty over a large area of the Cenrana River and Lake Tempe during the 15th century (Ian Caldwell 1988, pers. comm.). This might suggest that early Luwu expanded largely through conquering and looting its neighbors to the south, and exacting tribute from its dependencies. However, reliance on the texts of Luwu's adversaries is likely to give a very incomplete and a biased view on the early economic basis of Luwu.

The general model of Luwu's pre-Islamic organization appears to have been a royal stronghold in coastal Malangke, and an elite Bugis presence along much of the coast of present-day Luwu kabupaten, which was instrumental in controlling trade between the Luwu highlands and the maritime ports. The exportation of nickeliferous iron by the 14th century, corresponding to Majapahit's renowned pamor luwu, is a likely possibility but remains unconfirmed. Now that the broad details of Luwu's early history have been clarified archaeologically, it is time for meticulous analysis of the excavated materials so as to provide an explanation for Luwu's rise to prominence.

Acknowledgments
OXIS is funded by a large Australian Research Council grant, No. A59701253, and a special purposes grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Inc., No. IRCG-19. We thank Hasan Ambary and Truman Simanjuntak for facilitating OXIS' research in their capacities as senior administrators of Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, OXIS' national sponsor. We also thank Moh. Ali Fadillah, head of Balai Arkeologi Ujung Pandang, OXIS' local sponsor, for his untiring assistance. Ian Caldwell of Hull University has shared the findings of his historical research with us, Len Hogan of the University of Queensland has provided the preliminary results of his metallurgical analysis, Geoffrey Hope of Australian National University has provided critical geomorphological information, John Miksic of the National University of Singapore has inspected a sample of the Luwu glass, and Peter Bellwood of Australian National University, as Bulbeck's research supervisor, has helped in numerous ways.

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