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As Michael Greene, Recording Academy CEO, once said, �Music is a magical gift we must nourish and cultivate in our children� (Music Education). Unfortunately, society does not always feel that way. Music education programs across the country are being eliminated from the curriculums of our public schools in favor of more traditional classroom time. Despite the significant lack of historical resources and documentation, it is easy to see that society has not always valued music education for children. In fact, it is only within the last 200 years or so that music education has been readily available for all children within developed nations. The history of music education for children is an interesting one, and one that is important to understand in order to explain the importance of music for children in today�s society.
The history of music and children begins with the ancient Hebrews of the Old Testament, the first people to include music in their everyday lives. The Hebrews believed that music was a human invention, not a gift from God, and used it daily in their worship as well as in their secular lives. Both singing and instrumental music, as well as dancing, held prominent places in the religious services and ceremonies, and so it was important to them that all people, including children, had some musical knowledge. This knowledge was generally passed down through the generations rather than taught at a school. A limited amount of formal music education was available, but this was largely for the Levites, or church musicians, and the bards, professional musicians who played at weddings and other ceremonies (Mark and Gary 3-5).
The Ancient Greeks also valued music education for their children, but for very different reasons. They believed that children should receive an education which helped them to have a beautiful mind, body, and soul. Music was seen as one of the best ways to develop a beautiful soul in a child, and so the study of music was encouraged (Abeles 3). Plato, in The Republic, describes the Ancient Greek beliefs about music:
Education in music is most sovereign, because more than anything else rhythm
and harmony find their way to the inmost soul and take the strongest hold upon it
[�] If one is rightly trained, [�] he would praise beautiful things and take
delight in them and [�] when reason came the man thus nurtured would be the
first to give her welcome. (Mark, Ancient 6)
In fact, the Ancient Greeks believed that music had tremendous power over the emotions. They thought that the kind of music a person listened to could change his mood, and eventually his personality (Abeles 5).
The mathematical and acoustic ratios within music were also very important to the Ancient Greeks. Pythagoras studied the vibration rates of strings of different lengths and determined that if the length of a string is halved, the vibration rate will double. He believed that ratios such as this one were significant not only to music but to the world at large (Mark and Gary 9). He said that music was �a microcosm, a system of sound and rhythm ruled by the same mathematical laws that operate in the whole of the visible and invisible creation� (qtd. in Mark and Gary 9). By this reasoning, students who studied and understood the mathematical ratios in music could understand the order of the world at large, and so the study of musical ratios became very important for students. This branch of study remained popular for many years (Mark and Gary 9).
A music education had some practical benefits for children as well. In addition to being good for the mind and the soul of the child, musical knowledge allowed him to participate in traditional festivals and parades. Music made him an active and important part of the society, rather than just a useless spectator. Music education was also important because it developed a sense of patriotism and community in the children. Children developed alliances to both their friends and their homelands through the music they sung and the people they performed with. In addition, music was used by soldiers at war, so musical training was practical and necessary for future soldiers (Mark and Gary 9-10).
The Ancient Greeks were the first to create music schools to educate their children. Children could attend a special elementary school which taught both vocal and instrumental music and was designed for ages seven to fourteen. Unfortunately, this music education was limited to free males in the upper classes of society. Students at the schools studied poetry and learned to play the lyre, a small harp, for accompaniment. Students worked mostly on their own, and the school week did not have weekends (Mark and Gary 8).
Over time, the popular style of music in Ancient Greece began to change. The new style was more chromatic, with new harmonies and rhythms, and it was seen as immoral by the philosophers. Although the mathematical ratios were still studied, and in fact they had become an important part of the quadrivium, the core of the curriculum at a Latin School, music performance could no longer be used for its effects on the soul (Fletcher 6, 9). In addition, this new music was too complex for the child amateur musician, and required a professional for performance (Mark and Gary 11). By 1000 B.C., the Ancient Greek form of music education for children had disappeared (Mark and Gary 14).
The Middle Ages brought with them the beginnings of Christianity as a legal, organized religion and the return of the study of music. Churches formed small schools in the 300s AD to educate young boys to be church musicians. These schools became popular under the influence of Pope Gregory in the 500s AD. The schools were referred to as �Scholae Cantorum,� which is Latin for �singing school,� but some schools also taught instrumental music, harmony, and music composition (Abeles 5; Mark and Gary 20). The students were boys recruited from orphanages throughout the city, and they received intensive music education. Training lasted for ten years, and during that time, the students learned to sing almost entirely by ear (Phillips). They were famous for their abilities to sing Gregorian Chant, a free-rhythm style of music which was popular in the church at the time. Because only boys were allowed to attend the school, the boys with the best singing voices were castrated so they would retain their feminine voices into maturity. Many of the students would later go on to hold positions within the leadership of the Catholic Church (Abeles 5, Mark and Gary 20).
The Middle Ages also saw the publication of the first major book about music education. De Institutione Musica was written by Boethius around 500 AD and remained the most popular scholarly book about music education until after 1000 AD. Boethius focuses much of his writings on his belief that music influences the universe in a rational, mathematical way. He describes three kinds of music: �musica mundana� which controls the universe, �musica humana� which controls the health of the human body and soul, and �musica instrumentalis� which is the music we sing and play (Abeles 6). Boethius describes music in a unique way in his text: �Music is a sensuous form of the all-embracing cosmic harmony, conceivable only through the intellect, and not perceivable through human senses� (qtd in Mark and Gary 20). He was also an advocate for music education for both women and children: �Indeed this reaction to various types of music is experienced by both sexes, and by people of all ages; for although they may differ in their actions, they are nevertheless united as one in the pleasure of music� (qtd. in Mark, Source 67). Boethius� text was still used in schools as late as the 1600s (Fletcher 14).
The Dark Ages brought an initial decline in the quality and amount of music education, but a revival came under the influence of Charlemagne, who ruled from 768 until 814 AD. Charlemagne�s biggest accomplishment was the founding of schools which taught music, math, and Latin in cathedrals and monasteries throughout the state. These schools taught boys how to sing hymns, largely from memory, but also taught the philosophy and mathematical ratios of music. With the creation of these new schools, there were now four types of schools which taught music in Europe. The first were parish, or church, schools, elementary schools which taught basic hymn singing. A few convent schools were built to provide a basic education to girls, and they were the only schools available to girls who wanted to learn how to sing. Cathedral and parish schools, which were started to train musicians for the church, now offered a liberal arts curriculum in addition to music education. Universities and court schools offered the highest level of education. These four types of schools had one thing in common, however. As in the Middle Ages, all of the accessible music education came from the churches. A secular music education was not available (Mark and Gary 21-22).
As the Renaissance gained momentum in Europe, music education for children in the churches began to suffer a decline. New laws were passed such as the Act for the Dissolution of the Chantries in England in 1547 which removed funding from the church schools. As the education available from the church disappeared, a new secular source of music education was needed. This source was the newly formed music conservatories (Fletcher 16).
Music conservatories were formed in Italy in about 1500. These schools, which were funded by the state, were actually orphanages in which the orphans received an intensive music education. The orphans made good musicians, in the opinion of their teachers, because they did not have homes or families and would not mind the life of a traveling, performing musician. The conservatories� goal was to train the students to become excellent musicians and performers, and so liberal arts and mathematical music ratios were not emphasized in the schools. The conservatories were a major advancement in music education, however, because for the first time ever, girls had an equal chance at a music education. Naples was the center for boys� conservatories, and Venice was the home for the girls� conservatories. These conservatories were located only in Italy for many years, and the spread of the conservatories throughout Europe and America did not occur until around 1800 (Abeles 6-7).
The importance of music in society was growing as well. All teachers in any subject had to pass higher-level music classes at the universities. Music ability was still important for worship in the churches, although as music notation was developed, the focus changed from memorizing hymns to learning how to read and perform written music. The universities still focused on the mathematical and philosophical aspects of music, although they began to teach performance and used choirs increasingly in masses and other ceremonies. For this reason, music played an increasing part in the social and religious life of the university (Mark and Gary 26-27). The first university degrees in music were granted in the 1400s (Fletcher 15).
Although the new attitudes of the Renaissance helped children to get music education at the secular conservatories, these new attitudes changed the way music was taught in schools. New music was written in different styles, and so the traditional studies of music construction and mathematical ratios were no longer applicable to the popular, new music. As a result, schools focused on teaching the performance of music rather than music theory. This caused academic music education to suffer a decline (Mark and Gary 27).
Consequently, music in Britain was viewed as a lower-class amusement and not a subject for a gentleman to study. Music was an art, not a science, which was performed by the lower classes for the enjoyment of the upper class. Singing continued to be an important activity for children, however, and most children learned to sing during Sunday School. As the public school system in Britain grew, music became an important part of the curriculum. Solfege singing was taught in almost every school. The importance of music education in the curriculum became official in 1870 when the Education Act was modified to require choral music education as part of the school syllabus (Fletcher 18, 22-23).
Education for children was important in the United States from the very beginning. At first, however, music education was very disorganized. Children in the United States learned how to sing by attending church services, and they may have received some music education from their parents. The Pilgrims brought several psalm books with them from England, and they emphasized singing in their church services. As a result, children in the north received a more organized vocal music education through the church while children in the south learned how to sing and play instruments at home. These children were more likely to learn secular music than their northern counterparts (Labuta 6-7).
By the 1700s, the churches in the north were becoming concerned with the quality of worship in their services. Most of the congregation was illiterate and had no formal music education, and consequently the services began to suffer. Books were written which explained how to sing hymns and which simplified the music for the average churchgoer. Singing schools were also created to educate people of all ages, including children, and to teach the singing skills needed for worship. Congregational schools were organized through the churches, and private schools also held nondenominational classes in towns. People in the south, by contrast, continued to pass down both vocal and instrumental music skills through families and friends. Both boys and girls could learn music, but boys tended to play the violin and the flute, while girls learned singing and the guitar. Many slaves had tremendous musical abilities and could play multiple instruments (Labuta 10-12).
As public schools were created and expanded in the 1800s, music education for children flourished in the United States. Especially in the north, people looked for ways to incorporate music education into the new public school curriculum. Lowell Mason, considered to be the �father of public school music,� led the movement. His Boston Academy of Music promoted the inclusion of general music and singing classes in the public school curriculum. Local school boards first added music classes to the public elementary school curriculum in 1838. The approach to teaching music that was used was similar to one introduced by Pestalozzi, and came to be referred to as �rote before note.� The principle was simple. Children learned to sing like they would learn a language: they sang first by ear, and later the songs they already knew were used to teach music notation and note reading from the musical staff. A wide variety of music textbooks were published with slight variations on Pestalozzi�s �rote before note� system (Labuta 18-20).
The late 1800s brought an explosion in the music curriculum for children. Great band leaders like Patrick S. Gilmore and John Philip Sousa made band concerts a popular form of entertainment in the post-Civil War society. The popularity of the orchestra and the jazz band was also on the rise. As a result, school bands and orchestras were started. Instrumental music classes immediately became very popular in schools, and soon they were an important part of the curriculum. These classes were modeled after similar classes in England. Music appreciation classes also became popular, and statewide music appreciation memory contests were held after World War I. There was also an organization of the leadership in music education at the national level. The Music Supervisors National Conference was started in 1906 to bring music teachers together to discuss issues of common concern. This group, now known as the National Association for Music Education, is still active today (Labuta 21, 25, 27).
As time has passed, people have seen more and more clearly the importance of music education in the public school curriculum. Music education allows students to grow artistically and creatively in addition to academically. Ensembles such as bands and orchestras teach social skills, and show children how to be a valuable member of a group. Music education is even shown, according to recent studies, to help children perform better on standardized tests. According to a profile of students taking the SAT test conducted by the College Board, students who had taken music classes in school scored an average of 57 points higher on the verbal test and 41 points higher on the math tests than their non-musical counterparts (Music Education). Studies like this one clearly show the value of music in the classroom.
The struggle to keep music as a part of the curriculum in schools is not a new one. People who have recognized the numerous benefits of music education have been working to teach music to children since the beginning of recorded history. The progress we have made is tremendous, but again, the future of our children is being threatened. The importance of sharing the gift of music with our nation's children can not be understated. We must recognize the importance of music in the lives of our children and take steps to ensure that this important part of the curriculum is present in schools for many years to come.
WORKS CITED
Abeles, Harold F., Charles F. Hoffer, and Robert H. Klotman. Foundations of Music
Education. 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1984.
Fletcher, Peter. Education and Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Labuta, Joseph A. and Smith, Deborah A. Music Education: Historical Contexts and
Perspectives. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997.
Mark, Michael L. and Charles L. Gary. A History of American Music Education. New
York: Schirmer Books, 1992.
Mark, Michael L., ed. Music Education: Source Readings from Ancient Greece to
Today. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2002.
-- -- --. Source Readings in Music Education History. New York: Schirmer Books,
1982.
"Music Education Facts and Figures" 2002. The National Association for Music
Education. 27 November 2004
<http://www.menc.org/information/advocate/facts.html>
Phillips, C. Henry. �The Singing Church: An Outline History of the Music Sung by
Choir and People� 2004. Katapi Bible Resource Pages. 20 November 2004
<http://www.katapi.org.uk/SingingChurch/Ch3.htm>
