(Republic of the Philippines)
GEOGRAPHY
Lying in the west Pacific Ocean some 497 miles/800 km off the South-East Asian coast, the Philippine archipelago (7,107 islands) occupies a total land area of approximately 115,800 sq mile/300,000 sq km. Luzon to the north (40,410 sq mile/ 104,688 sq km) and Mindanao (36,527 sq mile/94,630 sq km) to the south are the two largest islands, containing two-thirds of the total area. The other nine main islands are Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Leyte, Mindore, Bohol, Cebu and Masbate. The Philippines exhibit a predominantly mountainous, volcanic topography with narrow coastal belts, north-south upland ridges, and north-draining river systems. On Luzon, the Sierra Madre (east) and Cordillera Central (west) are divided by the fertile Cagayan River valley, converging north of the populous central plain which extends south to Manila Bay. Mount Apo, the Philippines' highest peak, rises to 9,692 ft/2,954 m on the island of Mindanao. South-east of Manila, the country's largest lake, Lagunalde Bay, covers an area of over 347 sq mile/900 sq km. 40% of the total surface area is forested and 20% is considered arable.
Climate
Maritime tropical with variations according to altitude. Predominantly warm and humid in low-lying areas with consistently high temperatures, deviating little from 81 degrees F/27 degrees C. Rainfall varies from 35 in/890 mm to 216 in/5,490 mm on Luzon with a rainy season June-Nov. brought on by the south-westerly monsoon. Lying across the typhoon zone, up to 15 storms hit the archipelago every year. Other hazards include tsunamis (tidal waves) and seismic disturbance. Manila: Jan 77 degrees F/25 degrees C, July 82 degrees F/27.8 degrees C, average annual rainfall 82 in/2,083 mm.
Cities and towns
Manila (capital) 1,598,915
Quezon City 1,666,766
Davao 849,947
Caloocan 761,011
Cebu 610,417
Zamboanga 442,345
Population
Total population is (1993 est.) 65,000,000, of which 42% live in urban areas. Population density is 218 persons per sq km with severe overcrowding resulting from rural-urban migration. The Filipinos are of Malay origin with some Chinese, US and Spanish admixtures. (See Language for ethnolinguistic composition.)
Birth rate 3.0%. Death rate 0.7%. Rate of population increase 2.3% (av 1990-95). Age distribution under 15 = 41.1%; over 65 = 3.4%. Life expectancy female 70; male 63; average 66.5 years.
Religion
83% of the population are Roman Catholic, 9% Protestant, 5% Muslim, 3% Buddhist. Animists and unaffiliated persons number 400,000. The majority of the Muslims live in or around the capital, Manila.
Language
Pilipino (from Tagalog, a Malay dialect) is the national language. English is the other official language. Over 87 languages are indigenous to the Philippines. Only 23.8% of the population at the last census spoke Pilipino, whereas 24.2% spoke Cebuano, 10.3% Ilocano, 9.2% Hiligaynon Ilongo, 5.6% Bicol, 4.0% Samar-Leyte, 2.8% Pampango, 1.8% Pangasinan.
HISTORY
Before Spanish colonisation in the 16th century, the 7,000 or so islands which today comprise the Republic of the Philippines had no central government and little cultural homogeneity. The common unit of social and economic organisation was the barangay, a small settlement based on subsistence agriculture.
In the century after Ferdinand Magellan's voyage to Cebu in 1521, Spain increased its control as the islands became an important transhipment point on the trade route between the Far East and the Spanish colonies in Latin America. Catholicism was successfully introduced, although in the southern islands of Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago, Islam, established for a century before the arrival of the Spanish, remained dominant. In the 18th century an increasing number of plantations, or haciendas, were established which, together with the application of steam power in the 19th century, transformed the Philippines into a huge sugar producer. Its economic development and the decline of Spain stimulated native nationalism and by the end of the 19th century the colonial authorities were struggling to contain a flourishing independence movement.
In 1898 the colony was occupied by US forces during the Spanish-American War and, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, was formally ceded to the US. Although the US colonial administration was more enlightened than its predecessor, and granted significant concessions towards self-government, the nationalist movement continued to press for full independence. On 15 Nov. 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established under Pres. Manuel Quezon as a transitional stage prior to full independence, which was to follow in 10 years.
After the outbreak of the Pacific War in Dec. 1941, Japanese forces invaded and conquered the Philippines. There followed a period of harsh occupation during which the country was exploited to fulfil Japan's military needs and the autarchic aims of its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. In the latter half of 1942, as the military struggle began to run in favour of the Allies, Japan sought to harness its faltering war effort to the engine of native nationalism and thereby build a genuine basis for popular support within the occupied territories. A greater emphasis was placed upon Filipino values and culture, and on 14 Oct. 1943 the territory was declared independent. Nevertheless, the continuing brutalities of the occupation (particularly the conscription of labour), combined with Japanese attitudes of racial superiority, served to foster pro-American sentiments amongst much of the population.
US forces under Gen. Douglas MacArthur invaded the Philippines in Oct. 1944. In Feb. 1945 Manila was liberated and the Filipino government-in-exile under Sergio Osmena (who had become president after the death of Quezon in 1944) was reinstated. In Apr. 1946 Osmena was defeated by the Liberal Party candidate Manuel Roxas. On 4 July 1946 the Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed as an independent sovereign state with Roxas as its first president.
During the next 20 years the country's political process featured a series of one-term presidents drawn either from the Liberal or Nationalist Parties, each of which tended to be based around a leader who could dispense patronage. In Nov. 1965 the incumbent president was defeated by Ferdinand Marcos, the candidate of the Nationalist Party. Marcos was re-elected in 1969 amid charges that his victory had been secured by ballot rigging and intimidation.
Economic stagnation, together with rising inflation and endemic corruption, fuelled popular opposition to the Marcos administration. The government was also challenged by insurgency campaigns waged by communist and Muslim secessionist guerrillas. By the early 1970s, the New People's Army (NPA), the military wing of the banned Maoist Communist Party of the Philippines, had succeeded in harnessing peasant grievances to the extent that it constituted the de facto government in many remote areas, including parts of Luzon. In mineral-rich Mindanao and the southern islands the government was challenged by the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), demanding greater autonomy or independence for the country's 2,100,000 Muslims. (Neither of the insurgencies ended with the departure of Marcos.)
Marcos attempted to crush his opponents and extend his period in office by imposing martial law in Sept. 1972. Although a new constitution was created in 1973, Marcos ruled as a virtual dictator until 1981 when martial law was lifted in all but the southernmost provinces. In June 1981 he was elected to a new six-year term as president in an election largely boycotted by the opposition and tarnished by charges of fraud.
The relaxation of the autocratic grip of Marcos allowed the opposition to achieve a greater unity, and in mid-1983 its most prominent figure, Benigno Aquino, decided to return from self-imposed exile in the US, despite a warning from Imelda Marcos that he risked death by coming home. Aquino, a former senator sentenced to death after the imposition of martial law but reprieved through US pressure, arrived at Manila airport on 21 Aug. and was shot dead as he was escorted from the plane by military police. (Although the government contended that Rolando Galman, a minor criminal subsequently shot dead by troops, had been hired by communists to kill Aquino, there was widespread suspicion that the regime was involved. In Jan. 1985 Gen. Fabian Ver, a close Marcos associate, and 25 others were charged with the assassination. All were acquitted in late 1985. However, in a second trial that ended in late 1990, 16 officers and enlisted men, including the former chief of the Aviation Security Command, Brig.-Gen. Luther Custodio, were sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to murder Benigno Aquino. Another 20 were acquitted in a verdict that did not specify who ordered the killing. The court named Const. First Class Rogelio Moreno as the man who actually pulled the trigger.)
Aquino's assassination sparked massive anti-government demonstrations and provided a focus for the opposition to extend its campaign against the regime. In an attempt to bolster his position Marcos bowed to US pressure and called a presidential election for 7 Feb. 1986. The opposition united around the candidacy of Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno. Although Marcos claimed victory, most neutral observers accepted that Aquino had polled the most votes. She launched a mass 'People Power' campaign of peaceful resistance which, backed by a revolt within the army, the defection of Defence Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Lt-Gen. Fidel Ramos, and a strong signal from the United States, forced Marcos to flee into exile in Hawaii. Aquino was sworn in as president on 25 Feb. 1986. A year later a new, liberal constitution was overwhelmingly approved in a referendum, and in May 1987 Aquino's supporters won a majority in Congress.
After her election victory Aquino had to survive defections from her government and seven attempted coups by right-wing elements, wealthy Marcos loyalists, and disgruntled or disillusioned military officers. Although her survival returned a degree of constitutionality to the political process, Aquino was unable to resolve the most pressing problems of the Philippines. Despite negotiations and temporary ceasefires, the insurgency campaigns continued. The much vaunted land reform programme was criticised as inadequate in scope and application.
In Dec. 1989 the most serious attempt to overthrow the Aquino government was instigated by disgruntled military officers including Marcos loyalists, members of the Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) - which had turned against Aquino - and the lesser-known Young Officers Union (YOU). The rebellion lasted for ten days and resulted in over 100 deaths. The success of the troops loyal to the government had much to do with the air cover provided for them by the United States Air Force. In Feb. 1990 former defence minister Enrille was arrested in connection with the coup but the charges against him were later dismissed by the Supreme Court.
A driving force behind the Aquino administration was its attempt to recoup some of the $US10 billion it claimed the Marcos family looted from the Philippines. While Imelda Marcos stood trial in New York on charges of fraud, racketeering and obstruction of justice - charges spared her husband because of illness and death in Sept. 1989 - she was subsequently acquitted by a jury. On 4 Nov. 1991, Mrs Marcos returned to the Philippines after the ban upon her returning was lifted. Receiving a tumultuous reception by supporters, she was soon after charged with seven counts of fraud before being released on bail. Mrs Marcos agitated for the return of her husband's remains, a request which was eventually granted in Sept. 1993.
In 1991 a volcano dormant for 600 years, Luzon's Mount Pinatubo, played a decisive role in protracted negotiations with the US to replace the 44-year-old bases agreement expiring on 16 Sept. 1991. On 12 June the most powerful of several eruptions destroyed Clark Air Base. The US declared the base beyond repair and stated that it would abandon the base by Sept. 1992. Meanwhile, after nearly 14 months of negotiations a new ten-year lease was agreed to by the two administrations for the more important Subic Naval Station. The Philippines senate, however, refused to ratify the treaty and despite efforts by the Aquino administration the US was forced to relinquish its nearly 100-year presence in Subic Bay.
The campaign for the 1992 presidential elections focused on the failed promise of the post-Marcos era and was marked by Aquino's decision not to seek re-election. While the field was initially wide and included Imelda Marcos, it was soon seen as a three-way race between Defence Minister and former Marcos police chief Fidel Ramos, House of Representatives Speaker Ramon Mitra, and estranged cousin of the president Eduardo 'Danding' Cojuangco. As the polling date approached, however, agrarian reform secretary Miriam Defensor Santiago emerged as a dark horse candidate, drawing much support away from the other candidates. Aquino gave her support to Ramos.
About 80% of the country's 32 million voters went to the polls on 11 May 1992. While Santiago took an early lead it was Ramos who claimed victory three weeks after the poll. While Santiago claimed electoral fraud Ramos was proclaimed president on 22 June.
Ramos was faced with the unenviable task of solving the problems Aquino had failed to solve. His success has been less than spectacular. In economic policy he attacked the monopolies and cartels, especially in telecommunications, yet allegations of corruption and nepotism were levelled at his own government especially Irrigation and Agricultural Minister Majedul Huq. His Finance Secretary, Ramon de Rosario, was not confirmed by the Congressional Committee on Appointments because of a perceived conflict of interest with his wide business concerns.
It is probably in the field of law and order that Ramos has directed most of his personal attention, although the results remain disappointing. Seeing law and order as a fundamental precursor to economic development, he established an Anti-Crime Commission under Vice-Pres. Joseph Estrada. In May 1993 he fired many senior police officers in an attempt to end corruption. In Sept. 1992, he declared the Communist Party of the Philippines legal in the hope that such recognition might lead to a negotiated end to communist insurgency. Similar gestures were made to Muslim separatists and military rebels. To these ends, in July 1993 he formed the National Unification Commission.
Such initiatives, however, have not produced the hoped for results. Internal divisions in both the Communist Party and Muslim groups have meant these groups have been unable or unwilling to come to the negotiating table. The military is enduring an identity crisis as its role as a predominantly counter-insurgency force is returned to the police. In April 1993 Vice-Pres. Estrada narrowly escaped an assassination attempt which was linked to his anti-crime activities.
In foreign policy the Ramos administration has had to look more closely at its relationship with its region in the post-United States era.
In Oct. 1993 Imelda Marcos was found guilty on graft charges and sentenced to 18 years jail. The case has gone to the Supreme Court on appeal and Marcos remains free on bail.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
Executive and legislature
The president, directly elected to a single six-year term, has executive power, governing with the assistance of an appointed cabinet. Legislative authority is vested in a bicameral popularly elected Congress consisting of a 250-member House of Representatives and a 24-member Senate. The country is divided into 14 administrative regions including Metro Manila (national capital region) and 73 provinces.
Present government
President. Fidel Ramos.
Vice-President. Joseph Estrada.
Cabinet. Ernesto Garilao (Agrarian Reform), Roberto Sebastian (Agriculture), Salvador Enriquez (Budget and Management (acting)), Jesus Garcia (Communications, Transport), Armand Fabella (Culture, Education), Renato de Villa (Defence), Cielito Habito (Economic Planning), Victor Ramos (Environment, Natural Resources (acting)), Ramon Del Rosario (Finance), Roberto Romulo (Foreign), Juan Flavier (Health), Jose de Jesus (Highways, Public Works), Rafael Alunan (Interior, Local Government), Franklin Drilon (Justice), Maria Nieves Confesor (Labour (acting)), Ricardo Gloria (Science and Technology (acting)), Corazon de Leon (Social Services (acting)), Narzalina Lim (Tourism (acting)), Rizalino Navarro (Trade and Industry).
Justice
The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, which can declare a law or treaty unconstitutional, an intermediate appellate court, regional trial courts (one in each judicial region) and metropolitan trial courts. The death penalty was abolished in 1987.
National symbols
Flag. Two horizontal stripes, blue over red, with a white triangle inserted in the hoist. In the centre of the triangle there is a yellow sun with eight triple rays and in each corner of the triangle there is a yellow five-pointed star.
Festivals. 25 Feb. (Freedom Day, Anniversary of the People's Revolution), 1 May (Labour Day), 12 June (Independence Day, Anniversary of 1898 Declaration), 28 Aug. (National Heroes' Day), 21 Sept. (National Thanksgiving Day).
Vehicle registration plate. PI.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Affiliations
UN, ASEAN, NAM.
Defence
Total Armed Forces: 106,500 inclusive Philippine Constabulary. Terms of service: voluntary. Reserves: 128,000.
Army: 65,000; 41 light tanks (Scorpion).
Philippine Constabulary: 43,500.
Navy: 23,000 inclusive 8,500 marines, 2,000 coastguard; one frigate (US Cannon), 37 patrol and coastal combatants.
Air Force: 15,500; some 44 combat aircraft (mainly F-5, SF-260 WP); 79 armed helicopters.
Opposition: Bangsa Moro Army (armed wing of Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), Muslim): some 15,000; Moro Islamic Liberation Front (breakaway from MNLF; Muslim): 2,900; Moro Islamic Reformist Group (breakaway from MNLF): 900; New People's Army (NPA, communist): 17,500.
ECONOMY
Currency
The peso, divided into 100 centavos.
27.479 pesos = $US1 (1991 average).
National finance
Budget. The 1991 budget was for expenditure (current and capital) of 247,118 million pesos and revenue of 220,787 million pesos.
Balance of payments. The balance of payments (current account, 1990) was a deficit of $US2,695 million.
Inflation. 18.7% (1991).
Gross National Product
Total GNP (1991) $US46,138, per capita $US740.
Economically active population. The total number of persons active in the economy in 1991 was 25,246,000; unemployed: 9%.
Breakdown of GDP
Industry - 10% of workforce, 34% of GDP
Agriculture - 42% of workforce, 21% of GDP
Services* - 48% of workforce, 45% of GDP
* the services figure includes elements unassigned to the other categories.
Energy and mineral resources
Minerals. Production: (1991 in 1,000 tonnes) nickel ore 13.8, zinc concentrate 1, copper ore 151, salt 500, chromium ore 190, gold 31 tonnes, silver 34.9 tonnes. Other minerals include cement, rock asphalt.
Electricity. Capacity: 6.6 million kW; production: 24,538 million kWh; 418 kWh per capita (1988).
Bioresources
Agriculture. Of the total area of 30 million ha, 14.7 million ha are under cultivation. Main crops are rice, maize, coconuts, sugar cane, bananas, abaca, tobacco. The Philippines is an illegal producer of cannabis for the international drug trade.
Crop production: (1991 in 1,000 tonnes) rice 9,760, copra 1,930, coconuts 8,923, sugar cane 25,514, maize 4,655, bananas 3,545, tobacco 79, coffee 113.
Livestock numbers: (1991 in 1,000 head) buffalo 2,710, cattle 1,677, pigs 8,007, goats 2,107, poultry meat (thousand tonnes) 182.
Forestry. Some 35% of the land area is forest and woodland. Total production: (1991) 39.4 million..
Fisheries Production: (1990) 2,209,000 tonnes.
Industry and commerce
Industry. Main industries are textiles, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, wood products, food processing, electronics assembly, petroleum refining, fishing.
Commerce. Exports: (1991) $US8,840 million, including electrical equipment, textiles, minerals and ores, farm products, coconuts, chemicals, fish, forest products. Imports were $US12,051, including raw materials, capital goods, petroleum products. Countries exported to were US 37%, Japan 20%, Germany, Hong Kong, Netherlands, UK, Singapore. Imports came mainly from US 19%, Japan 18%, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Germany, Saudi Arabia.
Trade with Australia. In 1991 the Philippines imported Australian goods worth $A475 million; exports to Australia totalled $A137.8 million.
Tourism. (1990) 1,024,520 visitors. Tourist revenue was $US1,306,000.
COMMUNICATIONS
Railways
There are about 800 km of railways (mainly confined to the islands of Luzon and Panay).
Roads
There are 161,709 km of roads, 14% of which is surfaced.
Aviation
Aero Filipinas provides international services and Philippine Airlines Inc. (Pal), provides domestic and international services (main airports are at Manila and at Mactan on Cebu). Passengers: (1990) 5.7 million.
Shipping
There are 3,219 km of inland waterways, but these are only accessible to shallow-draught vessels. The marine ports are Manila and Legaspir (both on the main island of Luzon); Davao and Cagayan de Oro (both on Mindanao Island); Guimaras, and Iloilo (on Panay Island); and Cebu, on the island of Cebu. The merchant marine consists of 34 ships of 1,000 GRT or over. Freight loaded: (1990) 14.1 million tonnes; unloaded 31.7 million tonnes.
Telecommunications
There are over 900,000 telephones; good international radio and submarine cable services; and adequate domestic and inter-island services. There are 8.3 million radios and 2.5 million televisions (1989), five main TV networks, and at least ten main radio broadcasting networks, including the Far East Broadcasting Co. Inc. based in Valenzuela, Metro Manila, with a region-wide external service.
EDUCATION AND WELFARE
Education
Public elementary education of six years is free, but most secondary schooling, of four years, is private. There is a variety of adult literacy and community education programmes.
Literacy. 89.7% (1990 est.).
Health
(1985) 51,461 doctors and (1988) 87,697 hospital beds (one per 640 people).