(Republic of Indonesia)
GEOGRAPHY
Located between the South-East Asian and Australian mainlands, the Indonesian archipelago consists of some 13,667 islands covering a total area of 735,164 sq mile/1,904,569 sq km from the Malay Peninsula in the west to New Guinea in the east. The principal islands of Sumatera, Jawa, Kalimantan (approx. 60% of Borneo), Sulawesi and Irian Jaya (approx. 50% of New Guinea) are all characterised by their mountainous volcanic terrain covered by dense equatorial rainforest.
Volcanic activity on the fertile and densely populated island of Jawa is particularly pronounced. Between the two ocean shelves of Sunda (Malaysian and Indochinese extension) and Sahul (emanating from northern Australia) the Lesser Sundas, the Maluku and Sulawesi form the island summits of subaquatic mountain ranges flanked by sea trenches 4,500 m in depth. The Kapuas and Barito Rivers dominate the Indonesian hydrological profile, draining Kalimantan to the west and to the south. Lake Toba is situated on Sumatera at an altitude of 900 m. Of the total surface area, 8% is arable land and over two-thirds is forest or woodland, including mangrove swamps along the Sumateran and Kalimantan coastlines.
Indonesia is divided into 27 provinces, 3 of which are special territories - Jakarta, Yogyakarta and Aceh.
Climate
Predominantly tropical monsoon, with variations attributable to latitudinal span and island structure. Temperatures reach a maximum 87.8 degrees F/31 degrees C in coastal areas, decreasing inland. The dry season lasts June-Sept. (eastern monsoon) and the wet season Dec.-Mar. (except in the Moluccan islands which receive the bulk of their rainfall June-Sept). Rainfall amounts vary according to leeward/windward situation. Jakarta: Jan. 78 degrees F/25.6 degrees C, July 78 degrees F/25.6 degrees C, average annual rainfall 69.9 in/1,775 mm. Padang: Jan. 80 degrees F/26.7 degrees C, July 80 degrees F/26.7 degrees C, average annual rainfall 174.3 in/4,427 mm. Surabaya: Jan. 81 degrees F/27.2 degrees C, July 78 degrees F/25.6 degrees C, average annual rainfall 50.6 in/1285 mm.
Cities and towns
Jakarta (capital) 7,347,800
Surabaya 2,223,600
Bandung 1,566,700
Medan 1,378,955
Semarang 1,205,800
Palembang 873,900
Ujung Pandang (Makassar) 840,500
Padang 656,800
Malang 547,100
Population
Total population (1993 est.) is 188,000,000, of which 29% live in urban areas. Average population density is 104 persons per sq km rising to 826 persons per sq km on Java and Madura. Distribution: 59.81% on Java, 20.77% in Sumatra, 6.97% in Sulawesi, 4.88% in Kalimantan, 5.68% in the Nusa Tenggara islands, 0.88% in Irian Jaya, 1.02% in Moluccas. Principal ethnic divisions are: (by island group) the Minangkabaus, Aceh and Bataks in Sumatera, the Javanese and Sundanese in Java, the Madurese in Madura, the Balinese (Bali), the Sasaks in Lombok, the Torajas, Minakas, Menadonese and Buginese in Sulawesi, the Kalimantan Dayaks, the Irianese in Irian Jaya, the Timorese in Timor Timur, the Moluccan Ambonese.
Birth rate 2.7%. Death rate 0.9%. Rate of population increase 1.8% (av 1990-95). Age distribution under 15 = 38.6%; over 65 = 3.69%. Life expectancy female 65; male 61; average 63 years.
Religion
An estimated 87% of the population are Muslims and 9% Christians (6% Roman Catholic and 3% Protestant). The 3.5 million Hindus (2%) are concentrated on Bali. There are about 1.6 million Buddhists, primarily Chinese.
Language
Bahasa Indonesia (based on Malay, Bahasa Melayu) is the official language. Of the other Indonesian/western Austronesian languages (some 583 languages and dialects in the entire archipelago), Javanese is spoken by 69 million inhabitants, Sundanese by 26 million and Balinese, Banjarese, Batak, Bugis, Madurese and Minang by a further 25.5 million.
HISTORY
Situated on the sea route between China and India, and possessing abundant natural resources, the islands of the Indonesian archipelago have long attracted the attention of outside influences. From 3000 BC onwards Malay peoples from western China began to settle in the archipelago. Beginning in the 1st century AD, Indonesia came into contact with the Hindu-Buddhist culture of India. The Buddhist Sumatra-based Sri-Vijaya Empire ruled the archipelago between the 7th and 13th centuries. It was succeeded in 1293 by the Hindu-Buddhist Java-centred Majapahit Empire, which controlled much of the archipelago until the mid-15th century. Majapahit's decline coincided with the growth in Indonesia of Islam, introduced by traders.
The first European intrusion came in the early 16th century, when the Portuguese gained control of the Moluccan clove trade. In 1602 the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) was formed. Operating from Batavia (now Jakarta), it established a monopoly over regional trade, took control of parts of Java and the other islands, and forced local rulers into vassalage. By 1780, however, the company was bankrupt and in 1799 its charter was allowed to expire. The archipelago reverted to official Dutch rule and in 1808-11 Governor-General Daendels introduced a number of laissez faire reforms. During the French occupation of the Netherlands in the early 19th century, Britain took temporary control of the East Indies, in the process liberalising many of the harsher policies introduced by the Dutch. In the post-Napoleonic era the Dutch returned to the East Indies, only to be confronted by a major Java-based rebellion during 1825-30.
The end of the Java War marked the start of a period during which the Dutch intensified their exploitation of the archipelago's vast resources. In 1830 the Dutch introduced the Culture System, entailing forced cultivation of commercial crops for export. One-third of Holland's domestic budget was thus provided, but the indigenous Javanese economy was seriously distorted. Criticism of the Culture System on humanitarian grounds led to its abandonment in 1870, but this, along with Dutch fears of British imperialistic designs, encouraged the 'Forward Movement' and Dutch expansion to the Outer Islands; by 1910 all of present-day Indonesia was under Dutch control. In 1901 the Dutch introduced a new Ethical Policy which aimed at providing limited educational and administrative opportunities for the indigenous population. A by-product of the Ethical Policy was the emergence in the early 20th century of a class of western-educated, urban Indonesian intellectuals, whose nationalist aspirations were given impetus by events outside the archipelago, most notably Japan's defeat of the Soviet Union in 1905.
In 1912 the Sarekat Islam was formed, its membership growing to around 500,000 in 1919. The Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) was first established in 1920. It led revolts in 1926 (in West Java) and 1927 (in Sumatra). In 1927 the Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI) was formed under the leadership of Sukarno and Hatta. Dutch repression and nationalist divisiveness led to a hiatus in political activity throughout the 1930s.
In 1942 the Japanese overran the archipelago. Indonesia was to be granted 'independence' within Japan's 'Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere'. Preparations were made for this, and Sukarno worked with the Japanese though all the time promoting his own vision of Indonesian independence. On 17 Aug. 1945, three days after the Japanese surrender, independence was declared, with Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice-president. The Dutch returned to Indonesia but faced a republican guerrilla war. Negotiations were entered into, and on 27 Dec. 1949 the Republic of the United States of Indonesia came into being. This federal arrangement was short-lived, however, and on 17 Aug. 1950 the unitary Republic of Indonesia was proclaimed. West New Guinea remained in Dutch hands.
A period of western-style constitutional democracy was now initiated. However, the country lacked the prerequisites necessary for the system to work, and between 1950 and 1957 six governments were formed, none of which possessed the necessary authority to address the country's mounting political and economic problems. In the mid-1950s attempts by Sukarno and the army chief-of-staff, Gen. Nasution, to curb the powers of military officers stationed in the Outer Islands precipitated a crisis that threatened the existence of the nation. The unrest convinced Sukarno that Indonesia was not ready for full-blown parliamentary democracy, and in late 1956 he initiated a more authoritarian, anti-parliamentary system of government, described by him as 'Guided Democracy'. Martial law was proclaimed in Mar. 1957 and in July 1959 Sukarno issued a presidential decree reinstating the 1945 constitution, with its emphasis on broad presidential authority, and dissolving the legislature. The next year a new, fully-appointed, military-dominated legislature was created.
During the Guided Democracy period Indonesia pressed the Netherlands over its claim to West Irian (West New Guinea), and the territory was finally handed over in 1963. Also in 1963, Sukarno launched 'Confrontation' (Konfrontasi) against the new Malaysian Federation because of a perceived threat to Indonesia. In the first half of the 1960s Indonesia established close relations with China, and on 1 Jan. 1965 left the United Nations. Sukarno's exceptional political adeptness during the period of 'Guided Democracy' was demonstrated through his ability to balance the two great contending power factions, the PKI and the Armed Forces (ABRI). Sukarno's increasing support for the PKI, and the party's growing influence within sections of the army, meant that by 1965 the ABRI-PKI equilibrium was moving inexorably towards disintegration. Konfrontasi and chronic econ-omic mismanagement all added to the atmosphere of dangerous instability and the impression that Sukarno had lost control. On 30 Sept. 1965 the precarious balance of hostile forces broke and six top generals were kidnapped, tortured and killed in a coup attempt by the PKI and sympathetic elements in the army. Gen. Soeharto (commander of the army's Strategic Reserve) took control of the situation whilst Sukarno attempted to regain power. ABRI took action against the PKI, which was quickly proscribed, and by late 1965 as many as 500,000 communists, leftists and supporters of the 'old order' had been killed during violent protests in Java, Bali and Sumatra. In Mar. 1967 Sukarno was stripped of all his governmental powers, and in Mar. 1968 Soeharto became president. His New Order government reversed Sukarno's anti-western foreign policies. The army used the Golkar (Functional Groups) organisation to take control of the bureaucracy and to win parliamentary elections for the government in 1971, 1977, 1982, and 1987. (There are no opposition parties in the conventional sense, but 'partners' of the government in the Indonesian parliamentary system. The fourth principle of Pancasila (from Sanskrit 'panca' meaning five and 'sila' meaning principle), the official state philosphy and ideology, calls for 'democracy guided by the inner wisdom of deliberations of representatives' to reach consensus.)
In 1969 a disputed Act of Free Choice was held in West Irian (renamed Irian Jaya in 1973). The Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM - Free Papua Movement) subsequently began fighting a guerrilla war against Indonesia.
On 12 Sept. 1984 Muslim protesters clashed with troops in the Tanjung Priok area of Jakarta. At least 30 were killed. This incident marked a resurgence of Islamic protest in Indonesia in the 1980s. The government was seen as being anti-Muslim because of the 1985 Societies Law, which required all organisations to adopt the state ideology Pancasila as their sole ideological foundation, and as having too close links with Chinese business interests.
After presidential elections in Mar. 1988 Soeharto was sworn in for another five-year term. In July Indonesia hosted the Jakarta Informal Meeting at which all the belligerent parties of Cambodia met for the first time at the negotiating table. In July 1989 Indonesia and France co-chaired the Paris International Conference on Cambodia in the continuing search for a peaceful resolution to that country's divisions.
In 1988, the Aceh Merdeka (Free Aceh) secessionist guerilla movement in north-western Sumatra violently intensified its intermittent campaign to separate the province (a special territory) from Indonesia. By the end of 1990 an estimated 2,000 rebels, civilians and security forces had been killed. Both sides were internationally condemned for the violent nature of the conflict in an Asia Watch report in June 1991. Provisions were made for the International Red Cross to visit the province.
In June 1992 a general election was held which was dubbed a 'festival of democracy'. The ruling Golkar group won the poll comfortably with 68% of the vote, 5% down on the 1987 result. Outside parliament the activities of groups such as Democracy Forum and the Petition of 50 saw the emergence of what could be called an unofficial opposition.
In the field of foreign relations, Indonesia played an important role in the peaceful settlement of Cambodia's problems and in Aug. 1990 resumed diplomatic relations with China (which had been severed after the events of 1965). In 1992 Indonesia assumed the presidency of the Non-Aligned Movement for a three-year period.
Indonesia's relations with Australia, which had reached a low point in 1986 after Australian press reports alleging corruption in high places, steadily improved and saw the finalisation, in June 1991, of the Timor Gap Agreement sharing oil and gas between the two countries. Such relations were tested again in November following the Dili massacre (see East Timor below) but they improved markedly after Prime Minister Paul Keating's visit to Jakarta in April 1992 and a return visit in Oct. 1993 (following a trip to Washington where Keating had counselled the United States against tying economic and military aid to human rights).
Despite a slowing of foreign investment in 1992 amid claims that infrastructure problems and corruption were major impediments to investment, Indonesia's economy continued to grow in 1993. Much attention has focused upon discussion of future economic policy as it will be guided by the Second Long Term (25-year) Development Plan which is due to be launched in Apr. 1994. It is believed the plan will see a further deregulation of the Indonesian economy and greater efforts to remove structural barriers to investment.
In Mar. 1993 Soeharto secured his sixth five-year term as president. His new vice-president is former military chief of staff Try Sutrisno. Soeharto was apparently annoyed by the military's pushing of Sutrisno as vice-presidential candidate, fuelling a continuing debate over the dual functions of the Indonesian military. Soeharto's new Cabinet, which saw the reduction in its military membership continue, and the appointment of a civilian to the chair of Golkar, were seen as part of Soeharto's efforts to chastise the military. With his election to the vice-presidency, however, Sutrisno is now seen as the most likely successor to Pres. Soeharto.
East Timor
East Timor came under Portuguese colonial administration in 1702. Moves towards decolonisation began in 1974. A civil war in the territory in Aug. 1975 and the breakdown of Portuguese authority led to a declaration of independence by the Frente Revolucionaria de Timor Leste (Fretilin) on 27 Nov. 1975. Indonesian forces invaded on 7 Dec. 1975, and the territory was incorporated as Indonesia's 27th province in July 1976. Fretilin guerrilla elements continued to fight. Indonesia's claim to East Timor remains unrecognised by the United Nations, which still regards Portugal as the legal administering power. (Indonesia maintains that it never invaded East Timor, that Indonesian 'volunteers' acted in response to requests for help from four East Timorese political parties subjected to a Fretilin 'reign of terror', that those parties subsequently declared the integration of East Timor with Indonesia, and that Fretilin's 'unilateral' declaration of independence made civil war inevitable.)
In 1990 Indonesia and Portugal agreed in principle that a Portuguese parliamentary delegation would visit East Timor in a bid to end the long dispute. The cancellation of the visit, however, was followed by the tragic massacre of civilians in the cemetery of the Santa Cruz church in Dili on 12 Nov. 1991. Estimates of those killed when the Indonesian army opened fire on the protesting mourners ranged from the official Indonesian estimate of 51, to media reports of 180.
In part as a result of the international attention the massacre attracted, the Indonesian government took the unprecedented step of establishing a judicial inquiry. While the report of the inquiry condemned the actions of the military it was contrasted by the stiff jail terms of ten years or more received by those protesters who had been arrested. Soldiers who were found guilty of the actual shootings received lenient sentences or were simply disciplined, while the officer in charge was merely transferred.
Into 1993 East Timor remained an issue of international concern. On 20 April, representatives of Portugal and Indonesia met in Rome to discuss the disputed territory - which is still considered Portugal's responsibility by the UN - but little was achieved. In the United States, East Timor, and especially the Dili massacre, continues to be discussed in connection with arms sales and other economic arrangements between the two countries.
While in response to such international pressure Jakarta has sought more subtle ways to subdue East Timor, the continued insurgency activities of Fretilin have made this difficult. While Fretilin leader Jose Alexandre 'Xanana' Gusmao and his successor Antonio Gomes 'Mauhunu' da Costa were both captured and tried (Gusmao receiving a 20-year sentence in a trial criticised by foreign observers) the group increased its military activities under the new leadership of Konis Santana.
In Sept. 1993 unconfirmed reports from Dili claimed that scores of students had been detained by the Indonesian military.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
Executive and legislature
Indonesia is a unitary state, headed by an executive president who is elected for a five-year term, together with a vice-president, by a 1,000-member People's Consultative Assembly. Presidential elections are due in 1993. The president governs with the assistance of an appointed cabinet. The legislature is the 500-member House of Representatives, with 400 members elected for a five-year term by direct universal adult suffrage (last legislative elections were in April 1987) and 100 appointed by the president. To form the People's Consultative Assembly, which is described in the constitution as the embodiment of the whole Indonesian people, the 500 representatives are joined by 500 government appointees, delegates of the regional assemblies and appointed representatives of parties and groups.
Present government (March 1993)
President. Gen. (retd) Soeharto (head of state and chief executive).
Vice-President. Gen. (retd) Try Sutrisno.
Principal Members of Cabinet. Adml (retd) Sudomo (Political Affairs and Security), Dr Radius Prawiro (Economy, Finance, Industry and Development Supervision), Gen. (retd) Supardjo Rustam (Public Welfare), Gen. Rudini (Home Affairs), Ali Alatas (Foreign Affairs), Gen. L.B. (Benny) Murdani (Defence and Security), Lt-Gen. (retd) Ismail Saleh (Justice), Harmoko (Information).
Leading Member of the Armed Forces. Lt-Gen. Edi Sudrajat (Army Chief-of-Staff).
Justice
The system of civil and commercial law is based on Roman-Dutch and French codes, modified by indigenous concepts. Three different law systems are applicable to the three subdivisions of the country's population, Indonesians, Europeans and foreign Orientals, although all three groups are subject to the same code of criminal law and procedure. The highest court is the Supreme Court. The death penalty is in force.
National symbols
Flag. Two equal horizontal bands of red above white.
Festivals. 17 Aug. (Indonesian National Day).
Vehicle registration plate. RI.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Affiliations
UN, NAM, ASEAN, ICO, OPEC.
Defence
Total Armed Forces: 278,000. Terms of service: voluntary conscription, two years selective authorised. Reserves: 800,000.
Army: 215,000; some 125 light tanks (AMX-13, PT-76). Navy: 42,000 inclusive 1,000 naval air and 12,000 marines; two submarines (FRG T-209/1300, FRG HWT, 17 frigates (Netherland Van Speijk, UK Ashanti, US Claud Jones) and 43 patrol and coastal combatants.
Naval Air: 1,000; 18 combat aircraft, 15 armed helicopters.
Marines: 12,000; 80 light tanks (PT-76).
Air Force: 24,000; 81 combat aircraft (A-4, F-5, F-5E, F16).
Para-Military: some 180,000 inclusive Perintis ('special police' riot squads) and Police 'Mobile brigade'.
ECONOMY
Currency
The rupiah, divided into 100 sen.
2,081 rupiah = $US1 (June 1993).
National finance
Budget. The 1989 budget was for expenditure (current and capital) of 32,455 billion rupiah and revenue of 29,093 billion rupiah.
Balance of payments. The balance of payments (current account, 1991/92) was a deficit of $US5.0 billion.
Inflation. 9.2% (1991).
Gross National Product
Total GNP (1991) $US111,409 million, per capita $US610.
Economically active population. The total number of persons active in the economy is 79,768,288 (1992 est.); unemployed: 2%.
Breakdown of GDP
Industry - 8% of workforce, 41% of GDP
Agriculture - 54% of workforce, 19% of GDP
Services* - 38% of workforce, 40% of GDP
* the services figure includes elements unassigned to the other categories.
Energy and mineral resources
Oil and gas. Indonesia is a major world producer of crude petroleum and a member of OPEC. Pertamina (the state oil company) produces only a fraction of total output; most petroleum is produced under work contracts with foreign oil companies or under production-sharing agreements with foreign joint ventures. Oil remains vital to the Indonesian economy, despite the government's successful pursuance of policies during the 1980s to increase non-petroleum revenue. In addition, natural gas reserves are well utilised; large amounts of gas are pumped to liquefaction plants and exported to Japan and South Korea. In 1992 the output of crude oil was 74.3 million tonnes and natural gas 1.9 million terajoules.
Minerals. Other minerals mined in significant quantities include coal, tin, nickel, bauxite, iron ore, silver, gold. Output (1991 in tonnes): coal 16 million, nickel ore 66,100, gold 18, silver 80, (1990) bauxite 1.2 million.
Electricity. Capacity: 11,000,000 kW; production; 36,500 million kWh; 200 kWh per capita (1988).
Bioresources
Agriculture. Agriculture, including forestry and fishing, is the most important sector of the Indonesian economy, accounting for more than 19% of GDP and over 50% of the labour force. The staple crop is rice. Once the world's largest rice importer, Indonesia is now nearly self-sufficient.
Crop production: (1991 in 1,000 tonnes) rice 44,321, copra, 1,450, coconuts 14,000, rubber 1,284, palm oil 2,700, cassava 16,330, sugar cane 32,563, coffee 408, tobacco 159.
Livestock numbers: (1991 in 1,000 tonnes) cattle 10,350 goats 11,300, horses 750, pigs 6,800, sheep 5,750, buffalo 3,500, poultry meat 458,000 tonnes.
Forestry. Indonesia has the largest forest resources in Asia, covering approximately 113 million ha. Roundwood removals: (1991) 171.5 million cubic metres.
Fisheries Large commercial enterprises (often foreign-owned) dominate the sea-fishing industry, which is primarily export-orientated. Inland fishing is largely for internal consumption. Annual catch: (1990) 3,061,000 tonnes.
Industry and commerce
Industry. Production: (1987-8) textiles 2,930 million m2, steel 1.33 million tonnes, vehicle assembly 160,000, cement 12.3 million tonnes, cigarettes 133,000 million, plywood 6.5 million cubic metres. In addition there are four shipyards and paper, match, tyre and glass factories.
Commerce. Exports: (1991) $US29,142 million, mainly comprising gas and oil 25%, timber, handicrafts, coffee, rubber, shrimps, tin, copper, pepper, palm oil. Main export partners are: Japan, US, Singapore. Imports: $US25,869 million, comprising machinery, chemical products, base metals, transport equipment, food, beverages, tobacco, textiles, paper, printed matter. Indonesia's main import partners are Japan, US, Singapore, Saudi Arabia.
Trade with Australia. In 1991 Indonesia imported Australian goods worth $A1,449 million; exports to Australia totalled $A902 million.
Tourism. 2,177,566 visitors (1990).
COMMUNICATIONS
Railways
There are 6,521 km of railways, of which 110 km are electrified.
Roads
There are 219,009 km of roads (12,942 km of main or national roads).
Aviation
PT Bouraq Indonesia and PT Merpati Nusantara provide domestic services; PT Garuda Indonesia provides internat-ional services (international airports are at Cengkareng (near Jakarta), Medan (North Sumatra), Denpasar (Bali), Surabaya (East Java), Manado (North Sulawesi), and Ujung Pandang (South Sulawesi). Passengers: (1990) 8.6 million.
Shipping
There are 21,579 km of inland waterways. Sumatra has 5,471 km, Java and Madura 820 km. Kalimantan has 10,460 km, Celebes 241 km, and Irian Jaya 4,587 km. Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya are maritime ports on Java. Kupang is a martime port on Timor. Ujungpandang is a martime port on Celebes. Palembang is an inland port on Sumatra. The merchant marine consists of 323 ships of 1,000 GRT or over. Freight loaded: (1990) 156.8 million tonnes; unloaded: 29.6 million tonnes.
Telecommunications
There are 864,000 telephones (1987). The domestic service with an inter-island microwave system is fair. The international service is good. There are about 33 million radios and 10 million television sets; the state-controlled radio RRI operates a network of some 50 stations, while external broadcasts are made in English and 10 other languages by Voice of Indonesia. There is a state-run television service (TVRI) and two private TV channels.
EDUCATION AND WELFARE
Education
In theory, education is compulsory up to the age of 12, but the implementation of this regulation faces numerous obstacles.
Literacy. 77% (1990 est.).
Health
1,560 persons per hospital bed and 7,400 persons per doctor (1988).
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