THIS PAGE WILL HELP EXPLAIN THE VARIED AND OFTEN CONFUSING MEASUREMENT STANDARDS USED IN THE BLOOD SERVICES INDUSTRY.

In Blood testing, exact measurement of results is necessary. The measurement in laboratory tests must be the same every time and in every place. Your physician must be able to rely on a known and accepted standard. Different units of measure are used depending on the substance being measured. Normally, in Blood laboratory testing the metric system is used to measure mass, volume, and length. Grams are the standard to express measurement of mass, the amount of matter in an object (similar to weight which is affected by gravity.) Liters are the standard to express measurement of volume, the amount of space that an object occupies. Meters are the standard to express measurement of length. One great convenience of the metric is that it is based on multiples of 10. Another is that it is accepted universally around the world. Prefixes, indicating which multiple of 10 is meant, can be attached to the basic unit, such as meter (m), liter (L), or gram (gm), to help make a number more readable and more easily understood. Commonly used prefixes include kilo (k), deci (d), centi (c), milli (m), and micro (µ). Other units of measure communicate different measured properties of a substance. For example, a mole (mol) is the number of particles (molecules) in a substance. Regardless of the substance, 1 mole always expresses a number equivalent to the exact same number of particles. However, the number of grams in 1 mole may vary greatly from substance to substance. One mole equals the molecular (atomic) weight of a substance in grams. For example, the molecular weight of calcium is 40, and 1 mole of calcium equals 40 grams. Osmoles (Osm) and milliosmoles (mOsm) refer to the number of particles in a specific amount of liquid. Equivalents (Eq) and milliequivalents (mEq) measure a substance's ability to combine with another substance. A milliequivalent is roughly equivalent to a milliosmole. Formulas are used to convert a measurement from one unit to another. The same amount can be expressed in terms of different units. For example, the concentration of calcium in the Blood is normally about 10 milligrams in a deciliter (mg/dL), 2.5 millimoles in a liter (mmol/L), or 5 milliequivalents in a liter (mEq/L). In the United States, Blood laboratories use a different version of the metric system than does most of the rest of the world, which uses the Systeme Internationale (SI). In some cases translation between the two systems is simple. The difference between the two systems is most noticeable in the measurement of chemical concentration. The American system generally uses mass per unit volume, while the Systeme Internationale uses moles per unit volume. Since mass per mole varies with the molecular weight of the substance being analyzed, conversion between American and Systeme Internationale units requires many different conversion factors. At BloodBook.com, a great many of our visitors are from outside of the United States. Therefore, where available and appropriate, "Systeme Internationale" (SI) units are provided following "American" units. We have listed below the unit of measure abbreviations used on BloodBook.com.

k = kilo

d = deci

c = centi

m = milli

µ = micro

< = less than

> = greater or more than

m = meter

L = liter

dl = deciliter

gm = gram

mg = milligram

cells/mcl = cells per microliter

gm/dl = grams per deciliter

pg/cell = picograms per cell

mol = mole

mmol = millimole

Osm = Osmoles

mOsm = milliosmoles

Eq = Equivalents

mEq = milliequivalent

IU = International Unit

INR = International Normalized Ratio

sec = seconds (time)

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS CHART

1 teaspoonful = 5 ml 1/4 grain = 15 mg

1 tablespoonful = 15 ml 1/2 grain = 30 mg

1 grain = 60 mg

1.5 grains = 100 mg

5 grains = 300 mg

10 grains = 600 mg

BLOODBOOK.COM AND THE MEDICAL COMMUNITY IN GENERAL USES A LOT OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS. HERE IS SOME HELP.

Following here is a list of the most common of abbreviations (to the technician), that will leave the rest of us scratching a hole in our heads. We present these here because this is the language of your hospital report, and most of the Blood tests that are returned to you. Our view.....you paid for them, you should be able to read them!

ABBREV. ABBREVIATED TERM or PHRASE

2,3-DPG 2,3-dishospyhoglycerate

AABB American Association of Blood Banks

ACT Activated Clotting Time

ADH Antidiuretic Hormone

AHG Antihuman Globulin

AHTR Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction (also HTR)

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

ALT Alanine Aminotransferase

ANA Antinuclear Antibody

ANH Acute Normovolemic Hemodilution

anti-HBc Antibody to Hepatitis B Core Antigen

anti-HCV Antibody to Hepatitis C Virus

anti-HTLV-I/II Antibody to Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus type I/II

aPPT Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time

ARDS Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

AST Aspartate Transaminase

ATIII Antithrombin III

CHD Coronary Heart Disease

CJD Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (see nvCJD)

CMV Cytomegalovirus

CPD Citrate, Phosphate, Dextrose (solution)

CPDA-1 Citrate, Phosphate, Dextrose-Adenine (solution)

C/T Crossmatch-to-Transfusion ratio (C:T)

DDAVP 1-Desamino-8-D-Arginine Vasopressin (desmopressin)

DIC Disseminated Intravascular Coagulopathy

EACA Epsilon-Aminocaproic Acid

FDA Food and Drug Administration

FFP Fresh Frozen Plasma

FNHTR Febrile Nonhemolytic Transfusion Reaction

GGTP Gamma Glutamyl Transferase (GGT)

GHVD Graft-Versus-Host Disease

HAM HTLV-I-Associated Myelopathy

HBOC Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carrier

HBsAg Hepatitis B Surface Antigen

HB Hemoglobin

HCT Hematocrit

HBV Hepatitis B Virus

HCV Hepatitis C Virus

HDN Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn

HES Hydroxyethyl Starch

HH Hemochromatosis

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

HLA Human Leukocyte Antigen

HTLV-I/II Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus type I/II

HTR Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction (also AHTR)

IAD Intraoperative Autologous Donation

IFG Impaired Fasting Glucose

IgA Immunoglobulin A

ITP Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

LD Lactate Dehydrognase

MAC Mycobacterium Avium Complex

MCH Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin

MCHC Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentrate

MCV Mean Corpuscular Volume

mg/dL milligrams per deciliter

MPV Mean Platelet Volume

NAT Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing

nvCJD New Variation Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (nCJD)

PABD Preoperative Autologous Blood Donation

PAT Preoperative Autologous Blood Transfusion

PFC Perflurochemical(s)

PLTs Platlets

PMNs Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes

PPF Purified Protein Fraction

PRP Platelet-Rich Plasma

PT Prothrombin Time

PTP Posttransfusion Purpura

PTT Partial Thromboplastin Time

Q-T from QRS complex to end of T wave (interval)

RBCs Red Blood Cells

Rh Rhesus Factor

STS Serological Test for Syphilis

T&S Type and Screen

TA-GVHD Transfusion-Associated Graft-Versus-Host Disease

TEG Thromboelastograph

TRALI Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury

TSH Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

TSP Tropical Spastic Paraparesis

TSE Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies

TTP Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

TTTS Twin to Twin Transfusion Syndrome

TXA Transexamic Acid

WBCs White Blood Cells

vWd von Willebrand's Disease

vWf von Willebrand's Factor

THIS PAGE PRESENTS AN OVERVIEW OF YOUR INHERITED BLOOD TYPE, BLOOD FROM PARENTS, ALONG WITH USEFUL AND INTERESTING LINKS.

Well, for certain we all are exactly the product of our parents. The proof of this is in our Blood. Let's take a look at some of the "rules" of Blood type genetics for the population of the United States. (Other population groups have differing Blood type statistics. See information HERE.) There are basically four primary common Blood types. The most common by far is Blood type O, followed by type A, type B, and the least common is Blood type AB. Blood type is determined by the "alleles" that we inherit from our parents. Alleles are different possible types of a particular gene, in this case the gene(s) controlling our Blood type. There are three common Blood type alleles: A, B, and O. We all have two alleles, one inherited from each parent. The possible combinations of the three alleles are: OO; AO; BO; AB; AA; BB.

Blood types A and B are called "codominant" alleles, (they share in the controlling influence of our genetic Blood make-up) while O is "recessive." A codominant allele is apparent, or dominant, even if only one is present; a recessive allele is apparent only if two recessive alleles are present. Since Blood type O is recessive, it is not apparent if the person inherits an A or B allele along with it.

Therefore, there are certain possible allele combinations in a particular Blood type:

What all of this means to the paternity puzzle is that ABO Blood typing can only give some preliminary indications as to possible paternity. This rule, however, can not be universally applied, because the vast majority of most people in Caucasian populations has only two of those types (A and O). This means that a male may have a type consistent with paternity and still not be the father of the tested child. DNA typing always yields a more reliable conclusion regarding paternity and is the final word in paternity legal cases.

There are some good reasons for a husband to not donate Blood to his wife during her childbearing years. During this time, a women who plans to become pregnant, receiving Blood from her husband may pose a small risk to the infants born of these pregnancies. If, after the Blood transfusion the woman develops an antibody to an antigen on the father's red Blood cells, and the subsequently born fetus inherits the father's red cell antigen, the antibody from the mother may enter the Bloodstream of the fetus causing destruction of fetal red Blood cells. This may cause serious anemia in the fetus and excessive jaundice in the infant after birth. This is a known major cause of brain damage. Special Blood transfusions, using selected red Blood cells that do not have the particular in-compatible and offending antigen, are available when this condition is pre-diagnosed. Of course, we suggest autologous Blood donation for the mother. However, for those mothers who are unable to make an autologous donation, the decision to select her husband as a donor should always take this risk under consideration, and specific consultation with your pediatrician on this subject is essential.

There are instances when the following chart will not be accurate. In the case of a mutation, the Blood typings may not hold true in the question of parentage.

The chart should be used as general information only. All health care decisions should only be made with consultation from your physician. Ask before you act.

PARENTS' BLOOD TYPES POSSIBLE CHILD NOT POSSIBLE CHILD

Rh status works in a way similar to Blood type groups. If you are Rh positive, you may have genes for both positive and negative. If you are Rh negative, you have two genes for Rh negative. In the following chart, the child's Rh factor is in the white area.

VERVIEW: The most important thing that anyone can do when feeling ill is to see a caring physician. Our bodies change constantly, and one of the most valuable tools that the physician uses to assess your health is the laboratory Blood test. These tests are ordered, and the results are used by your physician to pinpoint or to support diagnosis, monitor or determine treatment, or to screen for undiagnosed conditions. Blood tests take an internal and dynamic 'snapshot' of you, at the time of the test. Laboratory test results are reported to your physician along with 'reference ranges' that assist in accurately assessing and interpreting the results of the testing. Every test is different, and each test needs to be viewed in the context of differences in test methodologies employed by the testing laboratory. Other important considerations are differences in groups of individuals such as: children, women, men, age groups, the population norms in the country of testing, and racial and ethnic factors. Testing laboratories establish these reference range values for most Blood tests so that 95% of healthy patients fall within that 'normal' range. This means that 5% of healthy patients fall outside of the 'reference' range, even though there may be nothing wrong with them at all! Therefore, an 'abnormal' Blood test result does not necessarily mean that there is something wrong with you. Many non-illness related factors may have an impact on your Blood test results. These include such things as the meals eaten or not eaten (fasting) in the 24 hours preceding the test, race, dietetic preference, age, sex, stress, menstrual cycle, physical exercise in the hours before testing, collection and/or handling of the specimen, non-prescription drugs (aspirin, cold medications, vitamins, etc.), prescription drugs, alcohol intake, and the quality of the sleep that you got on the night before the test, among others. Any unusual or abnormal test results should be talked over with your physician, and/or other qualified health care professional. These talks should continue until you understand all that you need to know about the testing and the results. Visit our other Blood test related pages for more information on Blood Testing. The following is a brief summary overview. It is not intended to be comprehensive or to replace the discussion of your test results with your Physician or other members of your health care team. For purposes of this presentation, we have separated Blood testing into two main groups: Blood Chemistry Tests with five sub-groups of tests, and Hematology Tests with six major sub-groups. Each sub-group may have many divisions that further clarify the purpose and the possible meaning of the tests. Additionally. there are groupings or batteries or 'panels' of tests that are often ordered which combine tests into groups for purposes of testing or ordering convenience or insurance payment.

BLOOD CHEMISTRY TESTS Doctors will often order Blood chemistry tests on a regular basis to monitor your health. The Blood chemistry test, also known as the chem screen, measures some of the most important chemicals required and produced by your body, to function properly, Blood chemicals like those produced by the liver, as well as nutritional elements such as vitamins, proteins, fats, and sugar. A chem screen can involve dozens of different tests, but the tests as ordered usually measure between six to 24 chemicals. Some important chemical levels are discussed below.

LIVER Total Protein (TP) - A rough measure of the total amount of serum protein in your body. Protein measurements can reflect not only liver disease, but nutritional state, kidney disease, and many other conditions as well. If the total protein result is abnormal, further tests must be performed to identify which protein fraction, and then which specific protein, is abnormal.

Albumin - The most abundant protein found in Blood plasma, representing 40% to 66% of the total protein in your body. Albumin keeps water inside your Blood vessels. Reduced levels of albumin may reflect a variety of conditions, including primary liver disease, increased breakdown of macromolecules resulting from tissue damage or inflammation, malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes, and renal diseases.

Globulin - Globulins are a diverse group of proteins in the Blood that grouped together represent the second most common proteins (after albumin) in the Bloodstream. Globulin is actually made up of about 60 different important proteins and is one of the components that help to fight infections. Some of the proteins in this group play an important role in Blood clotting. An elevation in the level of serum globulin can indicate the presence of cirrhosis of the liver.

ALT/SGPT (Alanine Aminotransferase) - Found mainly in the liver, the activity of this enzyme is measured in Blood plasma. Damage from alcohol, strenuous exercise, and a number of diseases can cause high test values. Elevated levels of this enzyme can be an indication of viral hepatitis and other forms of liver disease.

AST/SGOT Aspartate Aminotransferase - An increase of aspartate aminotransferase (AST, formerly referred to as "SGOT") is found in any condition involving necrosis of hepatocytes, myocardial cells, or skeletal muscle cells. As in AST/SGPT, damage from alcohol, strenuous exercise, and a number of diseases can cause high test values. Decreased serum AST is of no known clinical significance.

Bilirubin, Total - The coloring agent in the Blood that makes the plasma (serum) part of your Blood yellow. When the bilirubin level is very high for an extended period of time, the whites of your eyes and even your skin may become yellow (jaundice). Bilirubin comes from the breakdown of old red cells in the Blood. Total bilirubin is increased most commonly in liver disease (hepatitis, malignancy, advanced cirrhosis) and due to obstruction of the biliary system (gall stones, pancreatic cancer). Severe haemolytic anaemia can cause moderate increases which are almost entirely made up of the unconjugated fraction. Moderate to marked hyperbilirubinaemia is seen in some neonates especially if premature and can be caused by inborn errors of bilirubin metabolism or transport is a small number of cases.

Bilirubin, Direct - A specific form of bilirubin (conjugated) that is formed in the liver and excreted in bile. Under normal conditions very little of this form of bilirubin is found in the Blood. In liver disease, however, this form of bilirubin enters the Bloodstream so that even a slightly high level may indicate a problem with the liver cells, an obstruction of the bile ducts, or impairment of liver cell function.

Alkaline Phosphatase - An enzyme found in all body tissue, but primarily in bones, bile ducts and in the liver. A high level may indicate bone, liver, or bile duct disease. Some drugs may also cause increased levels. Expected values are higher for those who are growing (children and pregnant women) or when damage to bones or liver has occurred or with a gallstone condition. Low values are probably not significant.

KIDNEY BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) - A waste product, derived from protein breakdown, produced in the liver and excreted by way of the kidneys. High values may mean that the kidneys are not working as well as they should. BUN is also elevated by Blood loss, dehydration, high protein diets and/or strenuous exercise which may temporarily and artificially raise levels. A low BUN level may be the result of liver disease, a low protein diet, pregnancy, or drinking an extreme amount of water. Normal BUN levels should be between eight and 23 milligrams per deciliter of Blood (mg/dL); normal creatinine levels should be between 0.7 and 1.3 mg/dL.

Creatinine - A waste product largely from muscle metabolism (breakdown). Concentration of creatinine in the Blood depends upon the amount of muscle that you have and the ability of your kidneys to excrete creatinine. High values, especially with high BUN levels, may indicate problems with the kidneys. Because of its insensitivity in detecting early renal failure, the creatinine clearance is significantly reduced before any rise in serum creatinine occurs. The renal impairment may be due to intrinsic renal lesions, decreased perfusion of the kidney, or obstruction of the lower urinary tract. Low values are generally not considered significant.

BUN/Creatinine Ratio - By comparing the BUN level in the Blood to the creatinine level, your physician can determine if a high BUN level is caused by kidney disease, dehydration, or by gastrointestinal bleeding. Usually >20:1 in prerenal and postrenal azotemia, and <12:1 in acute tubular necrosis. Other intrinsic renal disease characteristically produces a ratio between these values.

Calcium - Controlled in the Blood by the parathyroid glands and the kidneys, calcium is one of the most important elements in the boby. Virtually all of the calcium in your body is found in bone (99%). That other 1% is very important for proper Blood clotting, nerve, and cell and enzyme activity. The parathyroid gland is the main regulator of calcium in the body. An elevated calcium can be due to medication, inherited disorders of calcium handling in the kidneys, bone disease, or excess parathyroid gland activity or vitamin D. Low calcium can be due to malnutrition, drugs and certain metabolic disorders and should be re-evaluated.

Sodium - An electrolyte regulated by the kidneys and adrenal glands. This element plays an important role in the water/salt balance in your body. There are numerous causes of high and low sodium levels, but the most common causes of low sodium are diuretic usage, drugs for diabetes like chlorpropamide, and excessive water intake in patients with heart or liver disease. A high level can be caused by an excessive intake of salt or even an insufficient intake of water. Sodium levels should be between 136 and 144 millimoles per liter of Blood (mmol/L).

Potassium - Controlled very carefully by the kidneys, potassium is an electrolyte found primarily inside cells. Its role is to maintain water balance inside the cells and to help in the transmission of nerve impulses. It is very important for the proper functioning of the nerves and muscles, particularly the heart. Any value outside the expected range, high or low, requires immediate medical evaluation. This is especially important if you are taking a diuretic (water pill) or heart pill (Digitalis, Lanoxin, etc.) A low potassium level can cause muscle weakness and heart problems. A high potassium level can be found in kidney disease or in over ingestion of potassium supplements. Potassium levels should be between 3.6 and 5.1 mmol/L.

Chloride - Important to the function of nerves, muscles, and cells. Chloride is an electrolyte regulated by the kidneys and adrenal glands. It is usually associated with a high or low level of sodium or potassium. Increase in serum chloride is seen in dehydration, renal tubular acidosis, acute renal failure, diabetes insipidus, prolonged diarrhea, salicylate toxicity, respiratory alkalosis, hypothalamic lesions, and adrenocortical hyperfunction. Drugs causing increased chloride include acetazolamide, androgens, corticosteroids, cholestyramine, diazoxide, estrogens, guanethidine, methyldopa, oxyphenbutazone, phenylbutazone, thiazides, and triamterene. Bromides in serum will not be distinguished from chloride in routine testing, so intoxication may show spuriously increased chloride. Decrease in serum chloride is seen in excessive sweating, prolonged vomiting, salt-losing nephropathy, adrenocortical defficiency, various acid base disturbances, conditions characterized by expansion of extracellular fluid volume, acute intermittent porphyria, etc. Drugs causing decreased chloride include bicarbonate, carbenoxolone, corticosteroids, diuretics, laxatives, and theophylline. Levels should be between 99 and 108 mmol/L.

CO2 - Reflects the acid status of your Blood. Abnormally high levels may indicate: vomiting, breathing disorders, hyperaldosteronism, or overproduction of hormones by adrenal gland, Cushing's Syndrome, a disorder caused by too much corticosteroids, either from drugs, such as prednisone, or from natural production of CO2 by the body. Abnormally low levels may indicate: ketoacidosis, or acidic Blood from starvation or severe diabetes, lactic acidosis, or the buildup of lactic acid caused by shock, kidney disease, diarrhea, methanol poisoning, ethylene glycol poisoning (poisoning from chemical found in antifreeze); Addison's Disease, a disorder causing low production of corticosteroids by the body or low CO2 due to chronic hyperventilation. Normal values for CO2 in Blood range from 20 to 29 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

HEART Total Cholesterol - Cholesterol in itself is not all bad, in fact, our bodies need a certain amount of this substance to function properly. When the level gets too high, however, serious problems can result. Levels of 200 or more are considered too high for good health. Levels of 240 and above are considered very high risk, and may indicate the need for cholesterol lowering medication. A low fat diet and regular exercise are recommended. As the level of Blood cholesterol increases, so does the possibility of plugging the arteries due to cholesterol plaque build-up. Such a disease process is called "hardening of the arteries" or atherosclerosis. When the arteries feeding the heart become plugged, a heart attack may occur. If the arteries that go to the brain are affected, then the result is a stroke.

HDL Cholesterol - (High Density Lipoprotein) A ‘good cholesterol’ as it protects against heart disease by helping remove excess cholesterol deposited in the arteries. High levels seem to be associated with low incidence of coronary heart disease. Tryglycerides - Fat carried in the Blood. Normal triglycerides should be between 50 and 200 mg/dL. Triglyceride levels over 150 mg/dl may be associated with problems other than heart disease. If levels exceed 500 mg/dL, the situation is considered acute. The ways to lower triglycerides are: 1) weight reduction, if overweight; 2) reduce animal fats in the diet: eat more fish; 3) take certain medications that your physician can prescribe; 4) get regular aerobic exercise; and, 5) decrease alcohol and sugar consumption. Alcohol and sugar are not fats, but the body can convert them into fats, then dump those fats into your Blood stream. High triglycerides are also associated with pancreatitis.

LDL Cholesterol - (Low Density Lipoprotein) Considered "bad cholesterol" because cholesterol deposits form in the arteries when LDL levels are high. An LDL level of less than 130 is recommended; 100 is ideal; values greater than 160 are considered high risk and should be followed up by your physician. Those persons who have established coronary or vascular disease may be instructed by their doctor to get their LDL Cholesterol well below 100. You should ask your doctor which LDL target he or she wants for you.

VLDL Cholesterol - (Very Low Density Lipoprotein) A type of cholesterol found in the Blood that is considered to be the most dangerous form of lipoprotein. They carry the least amount of protein and the most amount of fat. They also stick to artery walls and contribute to plaque build-up.

CK/CPK - An enzyme which is very useful for diagnosing diseases of the heart and skeletal muscle. This enzyme is the first to be elevated after a heart attack (three to four hours). If CPK is high in the absence of heart muscle injury, this is a strong indication of skeletal muscle disease.

LDH - The enzyme present in all human cells. Anything which damages cells, including Blood drawing itself, will raise amounts in the Blood. If Blood is not processed promptly and properly, high levels may occur. If all values except LDH are within expected ranges, it is probably a processing error and does not require further evaluation.

BONES Calcium - Increased levels of plasma calcium may indicate the presence of malignant disease or hyperparathyroidism. Less commonly, it could reflect thyrotoxicosis, vitamin D intoxication, the use of thiazide diuretics, sarcoidosis, and other disorders. Reduced levels of calcium may reflect vitamin D deficiency, renal disease, hypoparathyroidism, magnesium deficiency and other disorders.

Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) - Alkaline phosphatases are a family of enzymes that are present throughout the body, but the most important places are in bone, liver and bile ducts,. Elevated levels of ALP are associated with liver and bile duct disorders and bone diseases. Growing children, because of bone growth, normally have higher levels than adults. Low values are not generally considered significant.

METABOLISM (Pancreas) Glucose - Glucose is a chief source of energy for all living organisms. Elevated Blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia), in someone who has fasted for 12 hours, may be an indication of diabetes mellitus. Lower-than-normal Blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) may mean too much insulin in your Blood, or could be caused in a variety of other ways, often transiently, and must be carefully examined under specific clinical conditions before expanding the diagnosis.

MINERALS Iron - The body must have iron to make hemoglobin and to help transfer oxygen to the muscles. If the human body is low in iron, all body cells, particularly muscles in adults, do not function properly. Conversely, too much iron can cause injury to the heart, pancreas, joints, and genital parts in both males and females. Excess iron is found in the hereditary Blood disease called hemochromatosis. Serum iron levels may also be increased in hemolytic, megaloblastic, and aplastic anemias, and in acute leukemia, lead poisoning, pyridoxine deficiency, thalassemia, excessive iron therapy. Increased iron levels are often found after repeated Blood transfusions. Drugs causing increased serum iron include chloramphenicol, cisplatin, estrogens (including oral contraceptives), ethanol, iron dextran, and methotrexate. Iron can be a factor in iron-deficiency anemia, acute and chronic infections, carcinoma, nephrotic syndrome, hypothyroidism, in protein-calorie malnutrition, and after surgery.

Ferritin - Measured to assess the amount of iron, important for red Blood cell production, in the body. Ferritin is useful for early detection of iron deficiency. Ferritin is the major iron storage protein. The serum ferritin level is directly proportional to the amount of iron stored in the body.

Magnesium - Magnesium, a Blood salt, found primarily inside the cells, helps regulate energy production in the cells, and is necessary for nerve function. This test is not often ordered for adults. It is most often ordered in newborns. Magnesium, in extracellular fluid, influences neuromuscular response and irritability. A magnesium deficit may exist with little or no change apparent in serum level. Increased in: Dehydration, tissue trauma, renal failure; hypoadrenocorticism; hypothyroidism. Drugs: aspirin (prolonged use), lithium, magnesium salts, progesterone, triamterene, vitamin D (renal failure). Decreased in: Chronic diarrhea, enteric fistula, starvation, chronic alcoholism, chronic liver disease, total parenteral nutrition with inadequate replacement, hypoparathyroidism (especially post-parathyroid surgery), high-dose vitamin D and calcium therapy, acute pancreatitis, delirium tremens, chronic glomerulonephritis, hyperaldosteronism, diabetic ketoacidosis, SIADH, pregnancy. Drugs: albuterol, amphotericin B, calcium salts, cisplatin, citrates (Blood transfusion), cyclosporine, diuretics, ethacrynic acid.

Phosphorus - Phosphorus is closely associated with calcium in bone development. Most of the phosphorus in the body is found in the bones. An adequate phosphorus level in the Blood is very important for muscle and nerve function. Increased levels of plasma phosphate ion may indicate imminent renal failure, hypoparathyroidism, acromegaly, excessive phosphate intake, and vitamin D intoxication. Sharply decreased levels of plasma phosphate may reflect starvation or malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, primary hyperparathyroidism, magnesium deficiency, and diabetic ketoacidosis.

HEMATOLOGY TESTS These tests are the most commonly used Blood test tool to measure the number and amount of formed elements in the Blood. Formed elements include red Blood cells, white Blood cells, and platelets.

COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT (CBC) Red Blood Cells (RBC) - Also called erythrocytes, RBCs are responsible for delivering oxygen throughout the body. There are between 3.6 to 6.1 million red Blood cells in a single cubic millimeter of Blood. Anemia, a condition generally defined as a decreased number of red Blood cells, can be caused by certain anti-HIV drugs or be a sign of an underlying illness. Women of child-bearing age may also experience anemia as a result of Blood loss from their menstrual periods. One of the most common physical symptoms of anemia is fatigue.

Hemoglobin (HGB) - A protein which enables the RBCs to distribute oxygen throughout the body. A hemoglobin test is done when a person is ill or during a general physical examination. Good health requires an adequate amount of hemoglobin. The amount of oxygen in the body tissues depends on how much hemoglobin is in the red cells. Without enough hemoglobin, the tissues lack oxygen, and the heart