A few programmers have tried to replicate the reference interview in computer interfaces, but so far none has come close. Most of these interfaces rely on computer-mediated communications (CMC), in which the searcher's input is relayed to a librarian, who does research and compiles the results into output, which is then relayed back to the searcher (see for example Internet Public Library's Ask a Question; Fig. 4). Some use elaborate scripts to answer limited types of questions (see Question Master, Figs. 5a-b, which ultimately points the searcher to a print reference source). A few use animation, chat interfaces, and artificial intelligence to answer questions (see Ramona, Fig. 6, or Paige, Fig. 7), but currently these give only inane answers to most questions. In general, however, searchers do not turn to these, but to interfaces similar to Yahoo or Google.
Web-based search engine interfaces include an input screen and an output screen. Generally the input screen (Fig. 1) allows the searcher to enter text by typing in a search box or by selecting text choices from a menu. The searcher then presses the enter key or clicks on search or find and fairly quickly the output screen appears.
Between the input and output screens the search engine is browsing its index for the searcher's words (Fig. 2). (It does not actually "go out" into the Web for each search.) Once it has compiled all needed entries, it ranks them according to relevance, date, or other criteria, and displays them on the output screen (Fig. 3). Usually the results are displayed within a few seconds, but often output can be programmed to send new results repeatedly daily, weekly, monthly, or as new information is available (Fig. 8).
User-supplied text input is most common, but is not the only option. Others include text input selected from a menu, graphics created from a menu, and a mixture of all input options (Figs. 12-21)
In general, search engines that return graphics files do not index the content of the graphics files themselves (they do not "look inside" the files). Instead, they index the file names and the text surrounding the files in the Web pages, including the text of invisible meta tags. Search engines are capable, however, of looking inside graphics files and indexing pixel colors and patterns. They can then respond to user queries for those colors or patterns (face recognition software does this, for instance).
Just as input can occur in various ways, output can take various forms, usually a text list, but sometimes text lists in columns, graphics files displayed in a grid, or in various combinations, or as icons for the user to manipulate (Figs. 22-31).
Online databases generally return results as citation lists or keyword-in-context (KWIC) lists. A citation list usually consists of human-created entries with author, title, source, and abstract (Fig. 30). A KWIC list contains computer-generated entries with keywords in bold in the midst of the surrounding text (Fig. 31). Results could also be returned in graphic form, as clusters of icons or as labeled color fields (Figs. 26-27), but in practice are almost always returned as lists.
Although it may not be best way to provide information, the typical search engine interface has become a "form" as defined by Burke: "Form ... is an arousing and fulfilment of desires. A work has form in so far as one part of it leads a reader to anticipate another part, to be gratified by the sequence" (157; in particular, an interface is a "conventional form," 159-161). For instance, even with no knowledge of Japanese language, I can operate the Japanese search engine Goo (Figs. 9-10), while for an unconventional search engine such as Blobworld (Figs. 16a-b) I require instructions. Benjamin speaks of forms (architectural forms, mechanical forms) as "the true mystery of nature … the accurate, the objective, the logical solution to a problem posed in purely objective terms" (155), and inevitably, we construct these forms in the face of information tsunamis.
The fact that interfaces have become forms blinds us to their inadequacies. So the challenge is to recognize that we have some say in the construction. The work of William Morris still resonates here: Although the Industrial Revolution created unpleasant, alienating interiors and ugly, poisonous exteriors, it did not have to.
Introduction |
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Analysis | Input & Output |
Examples |
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