AlevelPE_SkillAcq

Understand a basic model of the memory process. Awareness of the interaction of memory with the perceptual process (selective attention). Definition of short term sensory store (STSS), short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM). Knowledge of strategies to improve the mechanisms of information retention and retrieval.

1. Read your text books and briefly explain the following terms:
a) Stimuli; b) Background information; c) Noise (3 marks)

2. Using the example of a table tennis player receiving a serve:
i) What information would be held in the short-term sensory store, and for how long? (2 marks)
ii) Name and describe the purpose of the process by which information is transferred from the short-term sensory store to the short-term memory. (4 marks)
iii) What types of information would you use (if you were a table tennis player receiving a serve) from your short-term memory? (3 marks)
iv) And your long-term memory? (3 marks)

3. Explain how the use of �chunking� information can be beneficial to the expert performer. (3 marks)

4. As a teacher or coach, how would you plan your coaching to ensure that the information you give would be retained in the performer�s long-term memory? (3 marks)

5. What is meant by the following terms
a) Encoding, and
b) Decoding.
(4 marks) (Total for questions 1 to 5: 25 marks)

6. Now make sure you have completed your PPP for information processing. You must choose either Schmidt�s or Whiting�s model of information processing and apply a skill from your sport. Remember to include the role of the short-term sensory store, short-term memory and long-term memory in your sequence (the DCR process). Reading Davis et al. will help you apply your chosen activity. Begin from the point at which all the stimuli are present (including �noise�) and finish your sequence once your response (output data) has been activated.

Memory is a very important part of the information processing sequence. Our previous experiences affect how we judge and interpret information and the course of action we take.

Last week we looked at three models of information processing, Schmidt�s, Whiting�s and Welford�s. The former two were the two simpler models. Schmidt identified

while Whiting identified

input (stimulus), stimulus identification, response selection, response programming, output (movement)

input data, receptor systems, perceptual mechanism, translatory mechanisms, effector mechanisms, muscular system, output, feedback

Both of these models are useful to use to identify the important role that memory plays in the over information processing sequence. We can study Welford�s more comprehensive model further after we have studied reaction time and feedback.

First, here is a look at the basic model of the memory process:

MEMORY

KEY TERMS EXPLAINED

STIMULI:

Any information that enters the body via the sensory system.

Stimuli are the specific parts of the display that stimulates the sense organs and are any item of information that stands out from background information and to which the player pays more attention. The performer will note the location of themselves, team mates and opponents, the speed and direction of any object being used, the position and decision of the referee, the reaction of the crowd, the weather conditions, instructions from the coach, as well as any pain or discomfort they may be experiencing.

Sports performers have to use the various stimuli presented to them from the display (surroundings and environment) during information processing, often ignoring irrelevant details and focusing their attention on important stimuli.

Background information are those aspects of the display that are not directly relevant to the task in hand but which nonetheless enter our sensory system. e.g. surroundings of the court, the audience, etc.. Psychologists refer to this background information as �noise�. We usually try to ignore �noise� and concentrate on the important stimuli.

We are more likely to detect a stimulus if it is intense, i.e. loud, bright, large, contrasting, fast-moving, unusual (e.g. referee�s whistle is shrill, team strip is distinctive, and sight screens used in cricket). The ability to differentiate background from stimuli is partly learned but partly a personality trait and also that noise can be a problem in decision making.

SHORT-TERM SENSORY STORES (STSS):

The STSS registers everything that the sense organs are capable of detecting but only for a brief moment.

Information in the form of stimuli enters the performer�s brain from the display. All the information first enters the STSS with each store having a large capacity but information is only stored for between a quarter and one second before it is filtered. Whether information is filtered through to the next stage, the STM, depends on the process of selective attention which makes sure that only important data passes into the STM.

Example: when playing an invasion game, all the players within our range of vision will be detected, also our position, the crowd, officials, position of ball, weather, instructions from coach, and other background information.

If selective attention decides that the stimulus is not relevant, the sensory memory held in the STSS fades and is lost. If the stimulus is perceived as important then it is passed through to the STM for further processing.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION (SA):

The process by which information important for performance is �filtered out� for further processing.

A vast amount of sensory information enters the STSS at any one time. The process of picking out and focusing on the most relevant information is called selective attention (SA). This process filters out unnecessary information and allows us to attend only to what is necessary. This ensures that the information processing system is not overloaded as the central nervous system does not have the capacity to process all aspects of the environment.

EXAMPLE: a tennis player will select the ball from the display and will ignore at this point the crowd, and other movements behind the ball.

Stimulus perceived as not relevant or important, and which is not passed through to the STM for further processing, is simply lost.

SA is an instinctive process but its effectiveness can be improved through learning from past experience. SA is particularly important in sport where quick reactions depend on being able to concentrate on important information and to shut out distractions.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM):

The �workplace� of the processing system - where information from the STSS (via selective attention) and the LTM (retrieval/recall) is used to decide what needs to be done.

Once passed into the STM from the STSS the characteristics of the data perceived important are compared with those of similar stimuli that may be in the LTM. If similar coded data is recognised in the LTM then this is decoded back into the STM and can be used to make a decision about an appropriate response.
However, the amount of information which is stored in the STM is rather limited (7 +/- 2 pieces of data) and is held for a short period of time (about 30 seconds).

EXAMPLE: A tennis player receiving a serve uses their STM to remember the position of their opponent on the court, their stance at the point of the ball toss, the ball toss, score, perhaps previous point/rally, and any other information that is less than one minute old. This information, together with any information that is recognised to stimuli similar to that in the LTM (held here as a result of training and/or past experience), can be used in the decision about what type of shot needs to be played.

Rehearsal (encoding)
The STM, as well as recalling data from the LTM for decision making, also sends information that is considered to be important, and which is rehearsed, to the LTM to be stored for future reference. This process is called encoding the information. Information that is not considered important, or it is not rehearsed, is usually lost because it does not go into the long-term memory (see �Strategies to improve the mechanisms of information retention and retrieval� below).

LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM):

Used for storing information for future retrieval.

The LTM has limitless capacity and holds information for long periods of time. Information here can be recalled/retrieved to the STM for decision making. The LTM holds information that has been learned and rehearsed in training and /or information from previous experience(s). Retrieved information from here is used in skill performance as the process of continued rehearsal leads to a skill being almost automatic. If you are regularly using particular motor skills you are more likely to remember them (swimming, riding a bike).

Storing or remembering information is achieved through: repetition; association; novelty; meaningfulness (see �Strategies to improve the mechanisms of information retention and retrieval� below).
For future reference it is also useful to know that it is in the LTM that motor programmes / schema are stored.

EXAMPLE: a tennis player who is experienced will be able to recognise that the information that has reached their STM is the same or similar to one in their LTM, one which they have practised in training many times or experienced in other matches. They can then decode this information back into the STM to be made available for decision making. The tennis player, in effect, already has the information stored in their LTM about what shot to play before the serve even commences. All the player has to do is recognise the information effectively so that when it is recalled a motor programme relating to an appropriate return of serve is activated.

Recall (or retrieval � decoding)
? The LTM is the store for information that we constantly need to refer to or which has been so well learned or practised that it remains in permanent store.
? Being able to quickly and efficiently retrieve information from the long-term memory is one of the qualities of a skilled performer. It allows appropriate selection of response and technically good, well co-ordinated movement.

DCR PROCESS:

The way in which performers are able to use their STSS, STM and LTM stores to detect, compare and recognise relevant stimuli is called the DCR process.

Detection - short-term sensory stores

Comparison � the short-term memory

Recognition � the long term memory

This process allows a performer to continually detect and interpret stimuli in the display, compare and recognise it with earlier experiences and knowledge stored in the LTM and recall this stored data by decoding it so that they are able to use it to help perform the appropriate response. The performer will be able to select an appropriate action from a number of possibilities depending on their past experience and knowledge of their opponent(s).

Strategies to Improve the Mechanisms of Information Retention and Retrieval:

(strategies to help improve STM and LTM)

Knowing

Memory for skills has both a cognitive component and a motor component so it is important that the coach explains to the learner what they are learning as well as showing them how to do it.

Brevity

The STM has a small capacity so too many stimuli can hinder memory. �Three coaching points then practice� is a good rule for a coach/teacher.

Clarity (interference)

K.I.S.S. � Keep it simple stupid! Start simple as greater complexity and refinement can be added later. Also, allow time for new information to �sink in� and avoid presenting two similar but distinct pieces of information one after the other, in the same session, or they may be confused, e.g. badminton / tennis strokes.

Chunking

Learner�s can hold more in the STM if the information is �chunked�, instead of being presented as individual items. C-A-T is three items but can be chunked together and be remembered as one: CAT. An expert rugby player, for example, instead of trying to remember each separate move made by each player in a line-out or a penalty move might remember the whole drill as a single number or word. Chunking also allows expert players to recognise a developing pattern of play early and helps them to anticipate.

Organisation / meaningfulness

Information is more likely to be remembered if it can be organised in a meaningful way. For example, to help a gymnast remember longer and more complex sequences, they should practice putting moves together so that the memory for the end of one move is linked to the memory for the beginning of the next. Coaches often use imagery (creating a �mind picture�) to help aid organisation.

Association

If new information can be linked to information already stored in LTM, then it will be remembered better. Passing in lacrosse is often introduced by reminding learners what it is like to throw a ball by hand. This helps to organise the skill in the learner�s mind. Also, a netball teacher may practice a one/two landing then throwing one week, then teach how to land and change direction before throwing � using the pivot, the next.

Rehearsal / practice (encoding)

No skill is learned without practice. If we repeat something, we are more likely to remember it. You may practise a set shot in basketball until you can remember the feel of it. By doing this shuttles the image of the skill backwards and forwards between the STM and LTM and in doing so establishes a �memory trace� or pathway. The more this occurs, the more permanent becomes the memory and the more readily it is recalled.

As information only remains in the STM for about 30 seconds, if �attention� is directed away from the information then it tends to be forgotten. In order to keep information �circulating� within the STM, research has suggested that it is more effective for a person to repeat it verbally. Visual imagery, although slower, can also be used.

EXTRA INFORMATION:

Duration of LTM (taken fro mWesson et al. 2nd Ed. page 509)

�Information, once learned and stored in the long-term memory, is thought to be there indefinitely, perhaps permanently. The main problem with information stored in the long-term memory is one of retrieval. Once information has been rehearsed, reinforced and linked together in the appropriate manner within the STM (coding) it is passed to the LTM for storage. It is generally thought that once learned and stored in the LTM motor skills in particular are protected from loss. There is evidence to suggest that retrieval is more effective with skills that have been �overlearned� (practised continually) and become autonomous. Skills that are linked or associated together in a more continuous way (cycling, swimming) rather than individual discrete skills (handstand, headstand) can also be retrieved more effectively.�

REVISION POINTS - MEMORY:

Questions:

Check out this page from s-cool: Explanations and some experiments on the human memory

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