Abstracts of selected Publications by Daniel Stökl Ben Ezra

BOOK The Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity

First part (pp. 13-144): Rites and Imaginaires of Yom Kippur in Early Judaism

(OT-Apocrypha, Qumran,LXX, Philo, Josephus, 4Maccabees, Rabbinic Sources, Hekhalot)

(NT, early Jewish Christians, early Gnosticism)

Church Fathers, Exegesis, Liturgy

For more detail please refer to the conclusions (pdf), the table of contents (pdf) or the gist of reviews

EDITION Mishna Bikkurim. Kritische Edition, Übersetzung und Kommentar. (almost finished)

A critical edition, German translation and commentary. This study edition is based on the most important old and complete manuscripts of the Mishna: Kaufmann, Parma, Cambridge and the prints from Vilna and Albeck. Unlike the other volumes of this series, this tractate takes also the many important Geniza fragments into account. The tractate is particularly interesting for its historical allusions to Agrippas I and Second Temple social organization, for the similarities of its descriptions of Jewish and Greco-Roman cultic processions, for its references to converts and for a long Baraita on hermaphrodites.

DATABASE: THALES

ARTICLES

Whose Fast Is It? The Ember Day of September and Yom Kippur
How useful is the tree/model of the ‘parting of the ways’ of Judaism and Christianity? Passages in Leo the Great and the choice of readings in the oldest Roman lectionaries for the Ember Days of September can best be explained on the background that Roman Christians adopted and “Christianized” Jewish practices of Yom Kippur long after a supposed “parting of the ways.” Leo’s description of contemporary Jewish practices shows acquaintance with Mishna Yoma. In addition, the Lectionary readings are exceptional from a source-internal view (the Minor Prophets are usually not read in the Roman lectionaries). On the other hand, the readings are very close to readings attested in Jewish traditions from Palestine and Babylonia or even in medieval sources for the festivals of Tishri, especially Yom Kippur. Most probably, the Christian readings were adopted from Judaism. This interaction took place after Constantine and in an area where such influence is usually not expected (in contrast to e.g. Syria). The tree model for the development of Judaism and Christianity according to which rituals or ideology of one system did not pass to the other system has to be abandoned as too great a simplification.

Old Caves and Young Caves: Two Qumran Collections?
The scenario that all or most caves served as emergency hiding places for the Qumran collection around 68 CE has to be discarded or fundamentally modified for the following reason. An examination of the average age of the scrolls of each of the Qumran caves shows a huge gap between “old” caves (caves 1 and 4 with an average age between 37 and 44 BCE) and “young” caves (caves (2, 3, 5, 6 and 11 with an average age between 5 and 25 CE). A statistical analysis proves that such a distribution cannot be achieved by random means. Therefore, the manuscripts from caves 1 and 4 cannot come from the same collection as those found in caves 2,3,5,6 and 11 (p<0.0001 for a Kruskal-Wallis test, similar numbers for a series of T-Tests). Old caves include very young manuscripts and vice versa. The library was therefore not arranged according to age. The statistical exams based on the discrepancy in average age shows that the origin of the Qumran scrolls cannot be one book collection that was then distributed in haste before an attack to various caves. We have to speak of at least two collections and/or two events when they were hidden.

An Ancient List of Christian Festivals in Toledot Yeshu
Parts of Toledot Yeshu, the Jewish Anti-Gospel, that have usually been dated to the Middle-Ages can be shown to be from the late fourth or early fifth century. A list of Christian festivals in the Elija/Paul section of the Anti-Acts is best understood on the background of liturgical traditions in that time when some pagan festivals (Kalendae) were still important, some Christian festivals were not yet important (Christmas) and others were still conflated (Ascension and Pentecost). The author or redactor had a basic knowledge of Christian practice. His ascription of these festivals to Jesus/Paul is an attempt to date the separation of Judaism and Christianity very early and make it a basic distinction between Jews and Christians. I suggest seeing a situation in which many Jews still partook in Christian festivities and vice versa (cf. Chrysostom) provides the reality against which the author of (at least this part of) Toledot Yeshu tries to rally.

Templisierung: Die Rückkehr des Tempels in die jüdische und christliche Liturgie der Spätantike
The destruction of the Temple deprived large parts of Judaism and also some Christians of their cultic center. Post-70 Judaism and Christianity were “unbloody” and therefore exceptional religions in the panorama of Greco-Roman religions. Yet both religions progressively introduced sacrificial terminology and ideology into their cultic system. There were manifold ways in which the non-sacrificial cult was linked to the Temple. Transfer of elements (e.g. priests, blessings, shofar); synchronization of prayer meetings with (alleged) times of Temple sacrifice; verbalization (verbal description and narration) of the Temple cult in the non-sacrificial cult); metaphorization (usage of Temple terminology for other new things, such as priesthood in Christianity, Minha as prayer title, etc). Starting with a survey of the Second Temple traditions, the article proceeds from Mishna to Tosefta to Talmudim, archeological remains of synagoges and then to Christian sources. The development is explained as a dialogue between both religions. The construction of synagogues in the image of the Temple is shown to have been particularly prevalent in the fourth century, which could be a reaction to similar architectural theology in Constantinian Christianity. Jewish and Christian “Templization” is argued to differ in that Jewish Templization is rather nostalgic while Christian is more utopian (without a sharp division line).

Yom Kippur in the Apocalyptic Imaginaire and the Roots of Jesus’ High Priesthood
The mythopoeic power of the most important festival of ancient Judaism is analyzed in a number of Second Temple texts (Zechariah 3, 1Enoch 10, 11QMelch, Hebrews, Apocalypse of Abraham). It is argued that a widespread Jewish Apocalyptic imaginaire of Yom Kippur (a set of motifs, images and myths associated with Yom Kippur) expresses itself in these texts without always having to tell the whole story. Hebrews describes an eschatological Yom Kippur deriving from the same imaginaire as 11QMelch. The Apocalypse of Abraham takes Joshua/Jesus son of Jozedek from Zechariah 3 into this imaginaire. The Christian concept of Christ as a high priest can be derived convincingly from this apocalyptic imaginaire of an eschatological purification which applies images of Yom Kippur that include those of Zechariah 3 and its high priest Joshua/Jesus.

Canonization a Linear Process? Observing the Process of Canonization through the Christian (and Jewish) papyri from from Egypt
he process of canonization has usually been analyzed via sources themselves subject to a process of canonization – Patristic sources. The present article tries to circumvent this trap by approaching archaeological artifacts whose survival is more dependent on chance: the Christian and Jewish papyri from 2nd to 5th century Egypt. A quantitative analysis of this data provides access to the literary predilections of ancient Christian readers of all brands, not necessarily ideological leaders of orthodox complexion. This has lead to the following results: Based on Athanasius’ list of canonical books, apocryphal writings are less and less read while the ratio of canonical books increases from century to century. This development is, however, not linear. In the fourth century, an increased interest in apocryphal literature (1Enoch, Jannes and Jambres, Acts of Paul) can be noted. This might be connected to the rise and diversification of new movements in Egypt (Melitians, Arians, monasticism). Accusations by Church Fathers that heresy is connected with the reading of uncanonical writings are not complete inventions. With regard to the ‘Apostolic’ Fathers (especially Hermas) we have to constate that they were as widely read as canonical literature up to the fourth century and only in the fifth slightly less.

The Christian Exegesis of the Scapegoat Between Jews and Pagans
The Christian Jewish authors of the New Testament refrained from using the scapegoat explicitly as a type of Christ because it was identified or connected with a demon. Early Christian authors, however, did develop a range of various typologies of the scapegoat. This was part of the Christianization of the OT in the attempt to provide a reaction to Jewish interpretation of the Bible and Jewish contemporary rituals such as Yom Kippur that were very attractive (Chrysostom), and, probably, as a vehicle parallel to the Greek pharmakos in order to promote Christian ideas in the general society. The Christian authors of the fifth century then reacted by limiting the range of possible interpretations as a result of the interpretation of Emperor Julian. This conclusion has many implications. For example, the success of the patristic exegesis can be shown in the ease we (or e.g. Rene Girard) metaphorically apply the biblical term scapegoat on human beings – instead of using Greco-Roman terms such as pharmakos.

Paleographical Observations Regarding 1Q5 – One or Several Scrolls
A paleographical analysis of the second copy of Deuteronomy from cave 1, 1Q5, shows that certainly fragment 1 and probably fragments 2 and 3 belong to different scrolls. Codicological examination pending, fragment 1 should be regarded as a new third copy, which should accordingly be termed 1Q5a, while fragments 2 and 3 might belong to 1Q4 or belong to a fourth copy (1Q5b?).

“Christians” Observing “Jewish” Festivals of Autumn
The article surveys evidence for Christians and Christian Jews observing festivals of autumn (New Year, Tabernacles and mostly the Day of Atonement): Paul, Hebrews, Luke-Acts, Hegesippus, Origen, Chrysostom and Abd Al-Jabbar as well as polemics. One can perhaps distinguish 3 stages in the perception of such religious behavior as the observance of Yom Kippur by followers of Christ: 1) normative (Luke-Acts) or acceptable (Paul); 2) peculiar, Judaeo-Christian but tolerable (Justin Martyr); and 3) un-Christian and prohibited (Diognet, Origen). There is a clear difference between the first century and later times regarding the social status of Jesus-followers observing Yom Kippur. In the first century, some leaders regarded the fast as normative (Luke-Acts) or acceptable (Paul). In later times, those observing the fast were probably ordinary Christians while those who defined Yom Kippur as un-Christian belonged to the leaders of the mainstream.

Parody and Polemics on Pentecost? Talmud Yerushalmi Pesahim on Acts 2
Against recent scholarship, the Christian Pentecost is explained as continuation of wide-spread Jewish Second Temple traditions about Shavuot as festival of revelation and covenant making. Furthermore, similar as some Church Fathers were acquainted with Jewish rabbinical traditions, (some) Rabbis knew about Christian liturgy and ideology. A passage in yPes 10.1 (37c) can be interpreted as parody of the story about the allegedly “drunken” disciples in Acts 2.

Two Chronological Texts from an Armenian Manuscript (M451) [together with Yoav Loeff]
Edition and commentary on two relatively brief chronological lists from contained in the Armenian Manuscript 451 from the Madenadaran library, a copy written in 1692 Isfahan. We have called the first “Years of the Patriarchs’ Lives” and the second Chronology from Adam. They are part of and basis for the Armenian predilection for history. There are some minor interesting extra-biblical traditions in the biblical parts and on Armenian history.

The Biblical Yom Kippur, the Jewish Fast of the Day of Atonement and the Church Fathers
The ongoing existence of and competition with the Jewish fast of Yom Kippur played a considerable role in the formation of the Christian exegesis and reinterpretation of Leviticus and influenced the stabilization of the sacrificial soteriology of the Letter to the Hebrews in the very center of Christian theology.