Computers and systems engineering

Systems engineering also profited from the advent of computers and the subsequent development of powerful, high-level programming languages, which affected the field in two principal ways. First, they provided new tools for analyzing complex systems by means of extensive calculations or direct simulation. In the second place, they could be used to digest large amounts of data or as actual constituents of complex systems, especially those concerned largely with information transmission. This opened up the possibility of processing information as well as simply transmitting it in such systems 

The impact of military weapons problems on systems engineering began soon after World War II. A landmark date was 1945, when the development of Nike Ajax, a U.S. air defense missile system, was initiated.

In 1945 available rocket propulsion seemed barely sufficient to give the missile a satisfactory tactical range. It was discovered that achievable range depended on several parameters, such as the weight and size of the warhead, fineness of the missile's aerodynamic design, degree of maneuverability provided by the control system, and shape of the trajectory and average speed along it. Thus an effective systems engineering effort was mounted in which a variety of combinations of the missile's properties were explored, with the objective of achieving the best balance between range and other tactical characteristics.

Control and feedback questions were also important aspects of the overall systems problem. The whole system was in fact a gigantic feedback loop because the missile was controlled by orders sent it from a ground computer, and the computer input included information on what the tracking radar observed the missile to be doing. Thus there was a closed feedback loop from missile to computer and back to the missile again. There were also such subsidiary feedback loops as that of the autopilot controlling the attitude of the missile, and the dynamic response of the system was further affected by the need to process the radar signals to remove radar "jitter." The analysis of such elaborate dynamical systems involving interlaced feedback paths has become an important special part of the general systems area.

In the 1950s and 1960s systems engineering also grew in other directions, largely as a result of weapons systems projects associated with the Cold War. Thus the Ajax study was concerned with the dynamics of a single isolated missile. On the other hand, the defense systems that grew up in the 1950s involved the coordinated operation of a large number of missiles, guns, interceptors, and radar installations scattered over a considerable area. These were all held together by a large digital computer, which thus became the central element of the system. The SAGE (semiautomatic ground environment) system in the United States is a good example.

During the same years the systems approach also became increasingly identified with management functions. Thus the phrase "systems engineering and technical direction" came into use to describe the role of a systems engineer responsible for both the initial planning of a project and its subsequent management. So-called planning, programming, and budgeting (PPB) techniques were developed to provide similar combinations of systems engineering and financial management.

In nonmilitary fields systems engineering has developed along similar though more modest lines. Early applications were likely to stress feedback control systems in large-scale automated production facilities, such as steel-rolling mills and petroleum refineries. Later applications stressed computer-based management information and control systems somewhat like those that had earlier been developed for air defense. In more recent years the systems approach has occasionally been applied to much larger civilian enterprises, such as the planning of new cities.

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