A

A.

Abbey:

Monastic community of either monks or nuns. Ruled by an (m.) Abbot or (f.) Abbess Usually founded by a particular monastic order and bound by their rules. Abbeys often owe some form of feudal obligation to a lord/lady or higher organization. Basically they are self-contained with all basic functions performed by the residents and obtaining their needs from the local area.

Apart from their religious role, some medieval abbeys became centres of learning and industry. Partly out of the need for extra funds to support their religious duties, some orders, especially the Cistercians, used their overseas connections to import novel industrial processes and to develop overseas markets.

Recent research in Yorkshire suggests that one Cistercian community was close to developing a blast furnace for smelting iron, hundreds of years before this technology powered the Industrial Revolution.

Abjuration:

The renunciation, under oath, of heresy to the Christian faith, made by a Christian wishing to be reconciled with the church.

Acre (area):

(Anglo-Saxon field.) The land area that can be ploughed by one ox team in a day - actually in a morning because the Oxen would need resting in the afternoon. Traditionally in the strip field farming system, an area 40 rods long by 4 rods wide (ie. 220 yards by 22 yards). Sometimes used as a measure of width: One acre = 4 Rods wide. One tenth of a square furlong. Similar to the French Journal, and German Morgan or Tagwerk. The modern acre is 4840 square yards.

Adulterine Castle:

Castle built without the liege lord's approval.

Advowson:

Right to present a clergyman to a vacant benefice. In 1275, the lord of the manor of Hemyock, Sir John de Hydone, had the advowson of St Mary's Church Hemyock.

Amercement:

Financial penalty inflicted at the MERCY of the King or his justices for various minor offences. The offender is said to be "IN MERCY" and the monies paid to the crown to settle the matter was called amercement (See also Fines).

Anathema:

A condemnation of heretics, similar in effect to major excommunication. It inflicted the penalty of complete exclusion from Christian society.

Appurtenances:

A right belonging to a property.

Apostate:

The term used to describe one who left religious orders after making solemn profession. It was considered a serious crime in the eyes of the church, being not only a breach of faith with God but also with the founders and benefactors of their religious house.

Ard-righ (Irish):

High King in Gaelic. RIGH meaning King.

Arpent:

Measure of land roughly equal to a modern acre.

Arrow Loop:

Narrow vertical slit cut into a wall through which arrows could be fired from inside, shielding the archer. Later, some arrow-loops were modified to suit small cannon, usually by being widened at the bottom. This resulted in a key-hole shape. See also slit.

Assart:

To turn woodlands into pasture or crop land. To assart lands within a forest without licence was a grave offence.

Assize:

Meeting of feudal vassals with the King. It also referred to decrees issued by the King after such a meetings.

Asylum:

(Right of). Temporary protection of fugitives from pursuit, pending investigation or exile. This right was widely abused by fugitives and their pursuers. It was later repealed. See also Sanctuary.

The right of an Abbot or Bishop to protect a fugitive from justice or to intercede on their behalf. Once asylum was granted the fugitive could not be removed, until after 40 days. After that, fugitives had to submit to justice. Alternatively, they could pledge an oath of adjuration never to return to the realm, after which they were free to find passage to the borders of the realm by the fastest way. If found within the borders after the set time they could be hunted down as before with no right of asylum to be granted ever again.

Augustinian Canons:

Religious/Monastic rules based on Love of God and Neighbour, respect for authority, care of the sick, and self-discipline.

To Index.

B.

Bailey:

Enclosed defensive castle courtyard or Ward.

Bailiff:

Lord's overseer or steward.

Bailiwick:

Bailiff's area of authority.

Ban:

King's power to command and prohibit under pain of punishment or death, mainly used because of a break in the King's Peace. Also a royal proclamation, either of a call to arms, or a decree of outlawry. In clerical terms, an excommunication on condemnation by the church.

Banalities:

Fees which a feudal lord imposes on his serfs for the use of his mill, oven, wine press, or similar facilities. It some times includes part of a fish catch or the proceeds from a rabbit warren.

Barber-surgeon:

Monastic who shaved faces/heads and performed light surgery.

Barbican:

Towers or outworks defending a gateway.

Bard:

Minstrel or poet who glorified the virtues of the people and chieftains.

Baron:

Vassal who held land directly from the crown and served as a member of the King's great council. It was not, of itself, a title, but rather a description of the Tenants in Chief class of nobility.

Barrow:

(Pre-historic). Earthen burial mound. Several different shapes and designs were used.

Bastion:

Defensive projection from the main wall or fortress, either a platform or a small tower. The Guard Houses at Hemyock Castle are believed to have been bastions which protected the outer end of the drawbridge.

Batter:

Sloping exterior surface at the base of all walls and towers. Built to protect the base of the wall against attack and increase its stability.

Battlement:

Narrow wall, consisting of Merlons alternating with Embrasures, built along the outer edge of the wall walk to protect the defenders against attack. See also Crenellate.

Belfry:

Type of siege engine. Tall, often armoured, wooden tower which could be moved up against the wall of a castle or town to shield attackers.

Beltane Eve:

Night of April 30, one of the two times of the year when mortal rules were believed to be suspended and supernatural occurrences were most common. Sometimes called May Day Eve. See Samhain Eve.

Benedictine Order:

Monastic order founded by St. Benedictine. Monks take vows of personal poverty, chastity and obedience to their abbot and the Benedictine Rule. See also Black Monk and White Monk.

Benefice (Latin: beneficium):

Grant of land given to a member of the aristocracy, a Bishop, or a monastery, for limited or hereditary use in exchange for services. In ecclesiastic terms, a benefice was a church office that returned revenue (ie a 'living' for a Rector or Vicar). Also known as a fee, feud, or fief coming from the Germanic feofum which comes from the Frankish "fehu" and "od" meaning livestock and movable possessions or property "chattel."

Benefit of Clergy:

Privilege enjoyed by members of the clergy, including tonsured clerks, placing them beyond the jurisdiction of secular courts. However, the penalties imposed by church courts were often harsh.

Berm:

Flat space between the base of the curtain wall and the inner edge of the moat.

Black Canon:

Common name for Augustinian Canons, derived from the colour of their robes.

Black Friar:

Common name for member of the Dominican Order, derived from the colour of their habit.

Black Monk:

Common name for member of the Benedictine Order, derived from the colour of their habit.

Bordar:

See Small Holder.

Borders (The):

Name given to the border lands between Scotland and England. See also the Marches. Also the border lands between the mythical Avalonian Empire and elsewhere.

Bore:

Heavy pole with iron head used by besiegers to attack the base of a wall.

Borough (also burg, burgh and burh):

Town with the right of self government granted by royal charter.

Borough-english:

Term which designates the custom of ultimogeniture (All lands inherited by the youngest son).

Breastwork:

Low defensive wall or earthwork, especially to protect gunners or artillery. These structures were often improvised both by besieging or attacking forces, and by defenders.

Brehon Laws (also called Feinechus):

An ancient Gaelic legal system.

Burgess:

The holder of land or house within a borough.

Buttress:

Projection from a wall to give additional support.

C.

Caltrop, Caltrap, Calthrop:

Small device scattered on the ground to injure and make any passing horses lame (or later to puncture rubber tyres). It has four metal spikes forming the four corners of a tetrahedron so that one metal spike will always points upwards. Manufactured by setting the spikes in an iron ball, or by simply joining the spikes together.

Canon:

A law or body of laws of a church. Member of a clerical group living according to a canon or rule.

Cantref:

Welsh political and administrative division, similar to English shires.

Cardinal Virtues:

Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude and Justice.

Carucate:

Measurement of land, equal to a hide (used in Dane law).

Catapult:

Large war engine for throwing stones.

Cathedral Church:

The church of the diocese where a Bishop has his throne (cathedra) and where he presides. Simplified to Cathedral.

Cesspit:

The opening in a wall in which the waste from one or more Garderobes was collected.

Chamberlain:

Officer of the royal household. He was responsible for the Chamber, meaning that he controlled access to the person of the King. He was also responsible for administration of the household and the private estates of the King. The Chamberlain was one of the four main officers of the court, the others being the Chancellor, the Justiciary, and the Treasurer.

Chancellor:

Officer of the Royal Household who served as the monarch's secretary or notary. The Chancellor was responsible for the Chancery, the arm of the royal government dealing with domestic and foreign affairs. Usually the person filling this office was a Bishop chosen for his knowledge of the law.

Charter of Franchise:

Documents granting liberty to a serf by his lord. The term also applies to the freedom granted to the inhabitants of a town or borough. The issue of a Charter of Franchise freed the town from servitude to feudal lords.

Charter Town:

Town granted a Charter.

Chert:

A type of hard flint stone used in some Devonshire buildings and fortifications such as Hemyock Castle.

Cistercian Order:

Monastic order which follows an especially strict form of the Benedictine rule. Monks take vows of personal poverty, chastity and obedience to their abbot and the Benedictine Rule. Also known as White Monks.

In medieval times, their wish for total seclusion from secular life led them to establish communities in remote areas. However, sometimes when they had been granted land by the local lord, they insisted that all of the former inhabitants were moved away. This caused much resentment. Dunkeswell Abbey, near Hemyock, was a Cistercian community.

Apart from their religious role, some medieval monasteries became centres of learning and industry. Partly out of the need for extra funds to support their religious duties, some orders, especially the Cistercians, used their overseas connections to import novel industrial processes and to develop overseas markets.

Recent research in Yorkshire suggests that one Cistercian community was close to developing a blast furnace for smelting iron, hundreds of years before this technology powered the Industrial Revolution.

Clergy:

Term used to include all members of religious orders. The clergy were generally exempt from jurisdiction of civil courts as well as from military service. See also Benefit of Clergy.

Cob:

Wall building technique using mud, strengthened with straw and horse hair etc. Formerly common in Devon. Probably used for domestic buildings within Hemyock Castle.

Common Law:

The body of law based on custom and judicial decisions rather than on statutes. See also equity and statute law.

Commune Concilium:

Norman equivalent of Anglo Saxon Witan. Decisions taken at such meetings, either judicial or military, were binding on the vassals.

Confession:

The public or private acknowledgement of sinfulness regarded as necessary to obtain divine forgiveness.

Constable:

The title of an officer given command of an army or an important garrison. Also the officer who commanded in the King's absence.

Corbel:

A projecting block of stone built into a wall during construction, for supporting a weight such as a parapet.

Corvee:

Dues paid by a serf, usually as labour, in return for use of his lord's land.

Cot:

Simple shelter or cottage.

Cottager:

Peasant of lower rank, with a cottage, but with little or no land.

Cottar:

See Cottager.

Count:

Continental equivalent of the English Earl. Ranks second only to Duke.

County:

The English Shire.

County Palatine:

See Palatinate.

Court of Common Pleas:

A common law court to hear pleas involving disputes between individuals. Almost all civil litigation was within its term of reference, as was supervision of manorial and local courts.

Craddog:

An Irish dwelling residing on a natural or man-made island.

Crenellate:

To add Battlements. A Licence to Crenellate was royal permission to fortify a manor house. King Richard II granted the Licence to Crenellate Hemyock Castle, on 5th November 1380.

Crusades:

Religiously inspired medieval military expeditions, usually to the Middle East, "to free the Holy Sites from the Infidel."

This was a very murky period, driven by fierce power struggles between European states and several competing European religious power groups.

According to some accounts, some Monasteries became very wealthy by acquiring the land and property of people who were raising money to fund the expense of joining the crusades.

Many improvements in castle design, weapons, metals and other technologies were brought back by returning crusaders. Hemyock has features and archways similar to those of crusader castles in Jordan.

Culdees:

Religious ascetics Culdee means "servant of god." Irish/Scottish preservers of old Gaelic Customs.

Curtain Wall:

Outer wall, usually incorporating defensive towers.

Cymraeg:

Welsh Language Name for itself.

Cymru:

Welsh name for the Welsh. (Cumree).

To Index.

D.

Danegeld or Danegelt:

The money paid by Anglo-Saxon Britain to persuade the Danes to not invade the South and West. Now means money extorted by threats.

Daub:

A mud or clay mixture applied over wattle to strengthen and seal it. See also wattle and daub.

D.B.:

Domesday Book.

Demesne:

(or Domain) The part of the lord's manorial lands reserved for his own use and not allocated to his serfs or freeholder tenants. Serfs worked in the demesne for a specified numbers of days per week. The demesne could either be scattered among the serfs' land, or be a separate area, the latter being more common for meadow and orchard lands. In Devonshire, the lord's land was usually kept separate from the peasants' land. (Pronounced "demain.") See also Inland, Outland, and Sokeland.

Denarius:

The English silver penny, hence the abbreviation "d" and the coin in most common circulation. Introduced by the Romans.

Dere Street:

Roman road from Lincoln, via York, to the Antonine Wall near Edinburgh.

Diocese:

A district subject to the jurisdiction of a Bishop/Archbishop. The name is derived from the administrative districts created by the Roman Emperor Diocletian.

Dispensations:

Permission to neglect a rule, often issued for church rules.

Domesday Book:

Comprehensive record of all land holdings in England, compiled in about 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror - apparently to discover the patterns of land ownership.

Domesday Inquest:

The comprehensive survey of all land holdings in England, compiled in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror - apparently to assist in the raising of taxes. Copies of the results were kept by the Exchequer and used to plan the re-adjustment of the levels of taxes and tax reliefs. Used in the preparation of the Domesday Book.

Donjon:

Original name for the keep or main tower. Prisoners were often kept in the lowest part - hence Dungeon.

Double Monastery:

Combined monastery for men and women but sexually separated. Ruled by either an abbot or abbess.

Dreng:

Name given to a free peasant in Northumbria and sometimes in Yorkshire and Lancashire. The name usually implies that land was held in return for military service.

Drawbridge:

Heavy timber platform built to span a moat between a gate house and surrounding land that could be raised using ropes or chains, to block the entrance, when required. Hemyock Castle is believed to have had a counter-weighted drawbridge, pivoted at the inner end.

Duke:

Title from the Roman Dux, which has been held over from Roman time by the ruler of a district called a duchy. In England the title is reserved for members of the royal family.

Dun:

Scottish or Irish single family hill fort.

Dungeon:

The jail, usually found in one of the towers. Often built as a pit entered only via a grill in its roof. Often foul, damp and airless. Hemyock Castle had dungeons. See also Donjon.

To Index.

E.

Earl:

The highest title attainable by an English nobleman who is not of royal blood. Also known in earlier times as Ealdorman. Word related to Jarl.

Eire:

Republic of (Southern) Ireland.

Embrasure:

Splayed opening in a wall for a window. Also the low segment of the alternate high and low segments of a Battlement. Provided protection to people within the wall.

Emoluments:

Advantages. Now usually refers to salary or fees arising from employment.

Enclave:

Enclosed compound containing eg. monastic buildings.

E.P.N.S.:

English Place Name Society.

Equity (Law):

System of jurisprudence based on principles of fair conduct and natural justice. This can provide a remedy where none exists in law. It supplements common law and mitigates its inflexibility. See also common law and statute law.

Ermine Street:

Roman road from London to Lincoln.

Erse:

Ancient Irish Language.

Escheat:

Right of a feudal lord to the return of lands held by his vassal, or the holding of a serf, should either die without lawful heirs or suffer outlawry.

Exchequer:

Financial department of the royal government. The chief officers of the Exchequer were the Treasurer, the Chancellor and the Justiciar. Sheriffs, in their role as regional chief accountants, presented reports to the exchequer at Easter and Michaelmas.

Excommunication:

Exclusion from the membership of the church or from communion with faithful Christians. Those judged "tolerati" could still mingle with the faithful, but those "vitandi" could not and were exiled. See also Anathema.

Eyre:

Right of the King (or justices acting in his name) to visit and inspect the holdings of any vassal. This was done periodically, usually at irregular intervals of a few years.

F.

Fair:

Market held at regular intervals, usually once to twice a year. Fairs tended to offer a wider range of goods than normal markets. They were generally licensed by either the King, a local lord, or a chartered town. In later centuries, Hiring Fairs became the common way of hiring agricultural labourers for the next year. Often, a second fair would be held about a month later, to permit the re-hiring of workers unsuited to their original jobs.

Sucking a straw is said to be the signal that a labourer was looking for work.

Farm:

Fixed sum, usually paid annually, for the right to collect all revenues from land; in effect, rent. Lords could farm land to vassals, receiving a fixed annual rent in place of the normal feudal obligation. Many sheriffs farmed out their shires, contracting in advance to pay a fixed annual sum to the crown, thus obtaining the right to collect any additional royal revenues for their own profit. The resulting extortion became widely unpopular.

Fealty (Oath of):

Oath by which a vassal swore loyalty to his lord, usually on a Relic of Saints or on The Bible.

Fee:

See Fief.

Ferding:

Administrative unit of land. Fourth part of a hundred. (Not necessarily exactly a quarter.)

Ferling or Quarter:

Quarter of a Virgate.

Felony:

In feudal law, any grave violation of the feudal contract between lord and vassal. Later it was expanded in common law to include any crime against the King's peace, and has come to mean any serious crime. Example: Murder is now a Felony, taking the burden of prosecution from the victim's family and giving it to the crown.

Feudalism:

System of governing whereby semi-autonomous landed nobility had certain well defined responsibilities to the King, in return for the use of grants of land (fiefs) exploited with the labour of a semi-free peasantry (serfs).

Fief:

Normally, land held by a vassal of a lord in return for stipulated services, chiefly military. Can also apply to an official position. Often called a Holding. Sometimes, unusual requirements were stipulated for transferring a fief. For example: Henry de la Wade held 42 acres of land in Oxford by the service of carrying a gyrfalcon (a falconry bird) whenever Kind Edward I wished to go hawking.

Fief de Haubert:

11th century French term equivalent to the term Knight's Fee because of the coat of mail (hauberk) which it entitled and required every tenant to own and wear when his services were needed. This provided a definite estate in France, because only persons who had this estate or greater were allowed to wear hauberks.

Fief-rente:

Money paid by a lord in an annual manner to a vassal in return for homage, fealty, and military service (usually knight service). It could include various things other than money, such as wine, cheese, providing chickens, or wood.

Fine:

A sum of money paid to the Crown to obtain some grant, concession, or privilege. Unlike amercement, a fine was not a monetary penalty, although failure to offer and pay a customary fine for some right, would undoubtedly lead to an amercement.

Finial:

A slender piece of stone used to decorate the tops of the Merlons.

Fitz:

Anglo Norman prefix meaning son.

Sometimes said to denote the family branch which was descended from an illegitimate son. (Possibly invented as an English insult aimed at haughty Norman conquerors, based on Fitzroy - ie. Fitz Roi - son of French King.)

Forebuilding:

Additional building against a Keep containing the stair to the doorway, and sometimes a chapel.

Forfeiture:

Right of a feudal lord to recover a fief when a vassal failed to honour his obligations under the feudal contract.

Formariage (also called merchet):

The sum commonly paid by a serf to his lord when the serf's daughter married a man from another manor.

Fosse:

Ditch or moat.

Fosse Way:

The Roman road between Lincoln and Exeter via Bath, built with a fosse on each side.

Frankpledge:

Legal condition under which every male member of a tithing (district) over the age of twelve was responsible for the good conduct of all other members of the tithing. Failure to control tithing members could lead to amercement of the entire tithing.

Furlong:

(Anglo-Saxon field.) The length of a plough furrow - ie. Furrow-long. In the strip field farming system, the length of the field strip ploughed before turning the ox team to plough the next furrow.

Fyrd:

Anglo Saxon Militia. Special King's Peace prevailed while to or from or during Fyrd service.

To Index.

G.

Gael:

Name given to Celtic inhabitants of Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Mann.

Garderobe:

Small latrine or toilet either built into the thickness of the wall or projected out from it. It is said that garments were stored in the Garderobe in the belief that the smell and draughts would deter clothes-moths.

Garth:

Enclosed yard or garden.

Gate House:

The complex of towers, bridges, and barriers built to protect each entrance through a castle or town wall.

Geld or Gelt:

Tax. As in Danegeld, the money raised and paid by Anglo-Saxon Britain to persuade the Danes to not invade the South and West.

Glebe:

Land granted to a clergyman as part of his benefice. Used to provide a food or an income.

Great Hall:

The building in the inner ward that housed the main meeting and dining area for the castle's residents. Long ago, the great hall at Hemyock was converted into the present manor house.

Grey Friar:

Common name for a Franciscan Friar, derived from the colour of their habit.

Guilds:

Term applied to trade associations whose chief aims were:

· To protect members from the competition of foreign merchants

· To maintain commercial standards

The first guilds were merchant guilds. Later, as industry became more specialized, craft guilds were formed. Guilds maintained a system of education whereby apprentices served a master for five to seven years before becoming a 'journeyman' at about age nineteen. Journeymen worked in the shop of a master until they could demonstrate to the leaders of the guild that they were ready for master status.

Guild members were forbidden from competing with each other, and merchants were required to sell at a "just price".

In many English towns and cities, the principal public building is still called the "Guildhall."

To Index.

H.

Half-timber:

The common form of medieval construction in which walls were made of a wood frame structure filled with Wattle and Daub. Buildings within the castle would often be of this form.

Hall:

Principal room in a medieval house, used for meeting and dining. Often, servants would sleep in the hall. It often extended up to the roof. Before chimneys were introduced, there would be an open fire, often in the middle of the floor. The smoke would vent through gaps in the roof. Later, high status buildings were fitted with Louvres - pottery vents in the roof designed to extract the smoke. Pieces of a Louvre have been found at Hemyock Castle. The old medieval ceiling, roof beams, and walls of the great hall at Hemyock Castle are blackened by soot from open fires. See also Solar.

Hanseatic League:

Association of merchants and towns of northern Germany.

Hauberk:

Coat of mail (armour). See also Fief de Haubert.

Haughland:

Riverside meadow.

Heptarchy (Seven Kingdoms of the):

Names given to the seven pre-Viking Kingdoms of England. Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, East Anglia, Essex and Sussex.

Heresy:

Any religious doctrine inconsistent with, or inimical to, the then prevailing orthodox beliefs of the church.

Heriot:

A payment which a feudal lord could claim from the possessions of a dead serf or other tenant, essentially a death tax. There were various forms of heriot. Generally if a tenant died in battle, the heriot was forgiven.

Hide:

A unit of measurement for assessment of tax, theoretically 120 acres, although it could vary between 60 and 240 acres. By custom it was the land that could be cultivated by one eight ox plough in one year. In the Devonshire Domesday Book, it seemed to average about 64 acres.

Hoards, Hoardings, Hourds:

Covered wooden balconies suspended from the tops of walls and towers, allowing defenders to climb through the crenellations to drop missiles and fire arrows accurately on any attackers at the base of the wall. Horizontal Putlog Holes for the wooden supporting brackets are still visible in the walls of Hemyock Castle.

Homage:

Ceremony by which a vassal pledged his fealty to his liege and acknowledged all other feudal obligations, in return for a grant of land.

Honor:

Holding or group of holdings forming a large estate, such as the land held by an Earl.

Hook or Crook (By hook or by crook):

Dispensation permitting villagers to gather firewood from woodlands, but using only their hook and crook. Effectively permitted the collection of dead branches from the trees.

Housteads:

Forts strategically placed on a craggy precipice. Hadrian's wall has many examples.

Howden:

A college of secular priests.

Hue and Cry:

Requirement for all members of a village to pursue a criminal with horn and voice. It was the duty of any person discovering a felony to raise the hue and cry. His neighbours were bound to assist him in pursuit and capture of the offender.

Hundred:

Anglo Saxon institution. Subdivision of a Shire. Theoretically, but hardly ever, equalled one hundred hides. Generally has its own court which met monthly to handle civil and criminal law. Equivalent to the ancient Norse Wapentake. There was a Hemyock Hundred.

Hundredweight:

Weight. 4 quarters ie. 8 stones or 112 pounds.

I.

Indulgence:

Remission from punishment for a sin after it has been forgiven. In medieval times the selling of indulgences, sometimes even in advance of a sin being committed, brought parts of the Church into serious disrepute.

Infidel:

Anyone having a strong aversion to the prevailing religion; eg. a non-Christian in a Christian country, or a non-Moslem in a Moslem country.

Inner Curtain:

High wall surrounding the Inner Ward of a castle.

Inner Ward:

The open area in the centre of a castle.

Interdict:

The ecclesiastical banning of all sacraments, except for baptism and extreme unction, throughout a geographical area. High feast days were usually not banned. A sanction used to force persons, institutions, communities or secular lords to accept an unpopular view dictated by the church or pope.

Inland:

(A term with several conflicting meanings.) Generally, the nucleus of the lord's estate, usually the demesne, especially that part which supported his own household, which was exempt from tax. After the Domesday Inquest showed the extent of this relief from taxation it was removed.

In modern Britain and USA, Inland Revenue taxes relate to a person's personal income and wealth.

See also Outland and Sokeland.

To Index.

J.

Jus Primae Noctis:

The (rather exaggerated) right by which a lord could (reputedly) sleep the first night with the bride of a newly married serf, although the custom could be avoided by the payment of a fine.

Justiciar

Head of the royal judicial system and the King's viceroy during his absence from the country.

To Index.

K.

Keep:

Main tower; final defensive refuge.

Knight:

The retainer of a feudal lord who owed military service for his fief, usually the service of one fully equipped, mounted warrior. They were the medieval equivalent of modern day battle tanks. Traditionally, knights aspired to the ideals of prowess, loyalty, generosity and courtesy.

Knight's Fee:

In theory, a Fief which provided sufficient revenue to equip and support one knight. This was approximately twelve hides or 1500 acres, although the terms applied more to revenue a fief could generate than its size; it required about thirty marks per year to support a knight.

Knight Hospitaler:

Holy order of knights pledged to administer to the sick and protect the Holy places in the Middle East. Forerunners of the present day St John's Ambulance Brigade.

Knight Templar:

Holy order of knights pledged to protect pilgrims to the Holy Land. The order became very wealthy by effectively becoming an international financial organization. Eventually, the order was disbanded and their wealth was distributed. They remain the centre of many myths and legends.

To Index.

L.

Lancet:

Tall narrow window with pointed head.

League:

In the Devonshire Domesday Book, usually 1½ miles.

Lease for Three Lives:

A term of lease of land, usually for the life of its holder, his son or wife, and a grandson.

Leet:

Term used in Kent for a subdivision of land equivalent to a hundred.

Lime-wash:

Protective coating applied to walls, to protect the mortar from weather. The outer walls of Hemyock Castle were rendered and lime-washed, forming a smooth white surface, making them harder to climb - and more imposing to outsiders!

Livery:

Modified form of a lord's coat of arms displayed as a badge on his property and the uniforms of his servants.

Livery Company:

One of the chartered companies of the City of London. These originate from the craft guilds.

Long Ton:

Weight. See ton.

Louvre:

Pottery vent in the roof of a high status building to extract smoke from the open fire. Pieces of a louvre have been found at Hemyock Castle. See also: Hall.

To Index.

M.

Machicolation:

Opening between the corbels of a parapet or in the floor, used for attacking besiegers. See also Murder Holes.

Man:

In this sense to be a lord's man, to owe obligations to him in the forms of labour or service. A woman could be someone's man.

Man-at-arms:

Soldier holding his land, generally 60-120 acres, specifically in exchange for military service. Sometimes called a Yeoman.

Mangonel:

War engine for throwing stones.

Manor:

Small holding, typically 1200-1800 acres, with its own court and probably its own hall, but not necessarily having a manor house. The manor as a unit of land was generally held by a knight (knight's fee) or managed by a bailiff for some other holder. In later years, the power of the manor declined progressively in favour of the vill.

Marcher Lords:

Name commonly given to Norman landholders on the Welsh border.

Marches:

Frontier territory, especially the Welsh Marches and the Scottish Marches. In medieval times they were subject to continual feuding.

The East, Middle, and West Marches on the Scottish border were the administrative districts on both the Scottish and English sides of the border. Each March had a Warden who was responsible for keeping the peace.

Mark:

Money. Normally the silver mark, a measure of silver, generally eight ounces, accepted throughout medieval western Europe. In England was worth thirteen shillings and four pence, ie. two thirds of £1. Equivalent to present value of the Euro.

The gold mark was worth £6.

Market:

Place where goods could be bought or sold, established in a village or town with the authorisation of a King or lord. This noble extended his protection to the market for a fee, and allowed its merchants various economic and judicial privileges. See also fair.

Maundy Money:

Ceremonial coins given to the poor by the British Monarch, on Maundy Thursday, the Thursday before Easter. Consists of silver 4, 3, 2, and 1 pence coins. Each recipient is given coins which total the Monarch's age.

Mead:

Wine made by fermenting a solution of honey. Spices were often added. Also another name for a meadow.

Merchet (also called formariage):

Sum commonly paid by a serf to his lord when the serf's daughter married a man from another manor.

Merlon:

The high segment of alternating high and low segments of a battlement, sometimes pierced with slits.

Michaelmas:

Feast of St. Michael on 29th September. A quarter day.

Midden:

Rubbish pit (beloved by archaeologists).

Military Religious Orders:

See Knights Templar and Hospitaler.

Minstrel:

Poet and singer, also called a jongleur, who lived and travelled on the largess of the aristocracy.

Misericord:

Small projecting ledge on the underside of a hinged seat in the choir stall of a church. When the seat is hinged up, this ledge gives some support to a standing person - until they fall asleep.

Moat:

A deep trench dug around a castle to impede attack from the surrounding land. It could be either left dry or filled with water. Water filled moats made it more difficult for attackers to dig tunnels. The moat at Hemyock was fed by two streams. A large part still remains.

Monastery:

Place where Monks or Nuns live a religious life in seclusion from secular society. Apart from their religious role, some medieval monasteries became centres of learning and industry. Partly out of the need for extra funds to support their religious duties, some orders, especially the Cistercians, used their overseas connections to import novel industrial processes and to develop overseas markets.

Recent research in Yorkshire suggests that one Cistercian community was close to developing a blast furnace for smelting iron, hundreds of years before this technology powered the Industrial Revolution.

Moneyer:

Person licensed by the crown to strike coins, receiving the dies from the crown, and keeping 1/240 of the money coined for himself.

Mormaer:

Gaelic Title (Great Steward) given to the rulers of the seven provinces of Celtic Scotland.

Mortar:

A mixture of sand, water, and lime used to bind stones together permanently. The lime mortar retained its flexibility and so resisted the shocks of battering.

Motte:

Man-made or natural mound on which a keep or donjon was built.

Murder Holes:

Openings in walls or ceiling of gate house, used for attacking the enemy.

To Index.

N.

Newel:

Centre post of winding or spiral staircase.

Nun:

Woman dedicated to the religious life usually a member of a religious order.

To Index.

O.

Ordeal:

A method of trial in which the accused was given a physical test (usually painful and/or dangerous) which could be met successfully only if they were innocent. Eg. Ordeal by fire.

Oubliette:

Concealed dungeon having a trap door in its ceiling as its only opening, where prisoners were often left to starve to death, sometimes in total darkness.

Outer Curtain:

Wall enclosing the outer ward.

Outer Ward:

The area around the outside of and adjacent to the inner curtain.

Outland:

Peasant's land, similar to German Bauergeit. See also Inland and Sokeland.

P.

Palatinate:

In England, a county in which the tenant in chief exercised powers normally reserved for the King, including the exclusive right to appoint justiciary, hold courts of chancery and exchequer, and to coin money. The King's writ was not valid in a County Palatinate.

Palisade:

Sturdy wooden fence usually built to enclose a site until a permanent stone wall could be constructed. Often built on a raised earth bank to give further protection. Sometimes these were built as an extra defence or as a temporary protection while a more permanent structure was being built.

Pele Tower:

Tower stronghold without outer defensive walls. Common in the border areas of Scotland. Examples include Bonshaw Tower.

Pent:

Also Pentise, Penthouse or Lean-to building.

Pillbox:

Modern term for a small enclosed fortified gun emplacement, normally constructed with reinforced concrete. See also Sangar.

Plough (Land of one plough):

The area of arable land capable of being tilled by one plough team. Equivalent to one Hide.

Plurality:

The holding of more than one church living at the same time.

Poniard:

Dagger with a slender blade.

Portcullis:

A heavy timber and iron grille suspended in special grooves in a gate house, in front of a gate, that could be dropped to block the gateway. The Hemyock gatehouse has a portcullis slot.

Postern Gate:

A side or less important gate into a castle. Often used for raids on besieging forces, or for escape. Traces of a postern gate have been found in the remains of Hemyock Castle's NW tower.

Pound (weight):

16 ounces (Avoirdupois).

Primogeniture:

The right of the eldest son to inherit the estate or office of his father.

Priory:

Any religious house administered by a prior or prioress. If the prior was subject to a resident abbot, the house was called an abbey or monastery. The title prioress was held in certain religious houses for women. See also monastery.

Putlog Hole:

A hole intentionally left in the surface of a wall for insertion of a horizontal pole. Such holes held scaffolding used during construction, floor joists, or supported hourdings. Hemyock Castle has many such holes.

To Index.

Q.

Quarter (weight):

2 stones ie. 28 pounds.

Quarter Days:

Days when rents and taxes were due.

· Lady Day: 25th March (Feast of the Annunciation)

· Midsummer: 24th June

· Michaelmas: 29th September

· Christmas: 25th December

Note. The English tax year used to start on Lady Day, the official first day of the year; it now starts on 6th April. The change occurred in 1752 when England reformed its calendar and "lost" 11 days - to widespread protest! (3rd September was reckoned as 14th September.) At the same time, the official first day of the year was moved to 1st January. Some people still refer to 6th January as Old Christmas Day - hence "The Twelve Days of Christmas." See also Scottish Term Days.

To Index.

R.

Ram:

Battering-ram. Also the re-inforced projection from the bows of some warships.

Rampart:

Defensive earth or stone wall surrounding castle.

Rape:

Sussex equivalent of a hundred.

Recognizances:

Money given or pledged for the performance of a legal obligation to do, or not to do, some particular act.

Reeve:

Royal official, or a manor official appointed by the lord or elected by the peasants.

Relief:

Fee paid by the heir of a deceased person on securing possession of a fief. Effectively, inheritance tax. The amount demanded was determined by tradition.

Riding:

Administrative unit of land. Third part of a shire, eg. the Yorkshire Ridings (North Riding, East Riding, West Riding) which were established in the 9th century by the Danes. (Not necessarily exactly a third.)

Rubble:

A random mixture of rocks and mortar, often used to fill the space between inner and outer faces of walls. See also mortar.

To Index.

S.

Samhain Eve:

Hallowe'en. 31st October. Eve of All Saints Day. See also Beltane Eve.

Sanctuary (Right of):

Temporary protection of fugitives from pursuit, pending investigation or exile. By reaching a church or certain land under church jurisdiction, a fugitive from the king's justice could claim refuge for forty days after which they had to leave its safety and submit to justice or abjure the realm as an outlaw. Some church buildings had large Sanctuary Rings or door knockers. Some had marker posts showing the extent of the safe area.

This right was widely abused by fugitives and their pursuers. It was later repealed. See also Asylum.

Sangar:

Modern term for a breastwork of earth, stone or concrete. Often used for a small Pillbox.

Sap:

Undermining of a wall, above or below ground, by attackers. One siege technique was to dig a tunnel under the castle walls and support the tunnel roof with timbers. Setting fire to the timbers would collapse the tunnel - and the wall.

Scaffolding:

Temporary wooden framework built next to a wall to support both workers and materials.

Scottish Term Days:

Quarter days.

· Candlemas: 2nd February

· Whitsunday: 15th May

· Lammas: 1st August (also a harvest festival)

· Martinmas: 11th November

T.

Tallage:

Tax levied on boroughs and on the tenants living on royal estates.

Tenant in Chief:

Lord or institution (the Church being most common) holding land directly from the King. All Earls were Tenants in Chief.

Teutonic Knights:

German Fighting Order with main bases in Prussia, Hungary and Germany. Recruited almost exclusively from German speaking peoples of Europe.

Thane:

Originally meaning a Military Companion to the King. Came to mean a land-holding administrative office.

Third Penny:

The local earl's one-third share of fines in shire or hundred courts, often allocated afterwards to a particular manor or church as income.

Tithe:

One tenth of a person's produce and income, due as a tax to support the church.

Ton (weight):

20 hundredweight or 2240 pounds. The "Long Ton."

Tonsure:

Rite of shaving the crown of the head of the person joining a monastic order or the secular clergy. It symbolised admission to the clerical state.

Tourney:

Mock combat for knights.

Town Air is Free Air:

Words used in the charters of many towns, to proclaim the freedom of any escaped serf who lived there for a year and a day without being claimed by his lord.

T.R.E. (tempora regis Eduardis):

Abbreviation in the Domesday Book meaning in the time of King Edward the Confessor - the last King recognised as lawful by William the Conqueror - whose death on 5th January 1066 initiated the events leading to the Norman Conquest.

Treasurer:

Chief financial officer of the realm, and senior officer of the Exchequer.

Trebuchet:

Siege engine in the form of a giant sling.

Trial by Combat (Also Trial by Battle):

Medieval process of determining guilt, or a dispute, by combat between the accuser and the accused. Sometimes, champions were permitted. The assumption was that God would intervene and decide the case. Officially abolished in Britain in 1819.

Truss:

One of the timber frames built to support the roof over the great hall.

Turning-bridge:

Type of wooden drawbridge pivoted on an axle and working like a see-saw, with a counter-weight attached to the end nearer the gateway. This required a large chamber below the bridge to receive the counterweight. The Hemyock drawbridge is believed to have been the simpler hinged type with counter-weights on the hoisting cables.

Turret:

A small tower rising above and resting on one of the main towers, usually used as a look out point.

To Index.

U.

Ultimogeniture:

Term meaning that the youngest son would inherit the estate or office of his father. This was customary in some Devon farming families until modern times. See also Borough-english.

Undercroft:

Cellar, crypt, or basement under a building.

Usury:

The interest charged on a loan. Forbidden by medieval Christian church law (based upon an interpretation of the Bible), and also for some Moslems.

This led to the growing importance of Jews as money lenders to all including the State. Later, the resulting debts owed to such Jews, when deliberately highlighted for political reasons, probably contributed much to the widespread hostility to and the subsequent massacres of whole Jewish communities.

The medieval Knights Templar were given special dispensation from law against usury. As a result they became very wealthy during the crusades, effectively forming themselves into an international financial organization. The order was later suppressed.

To Index.

V.

Vassal:

Free man who held land (fief) from a lord to whom he paid homage and swore fealty. He owed various services and obligations, primarily military. But he was also required to advise his lord and pay him the traditional feudal aids required on the knighting of the lord's eldest son, the marriage of the lord's eldest daughter and the ransoming of the lord should he be held captive.

Vill:

Administrative unit containing about 5 to 10 Hides and inhabitants. Equivalent to the secular parish. The vill usually contained several manors. As the feudal system declined, the vill took over importance from the hundred and manor. Later, the parish took on the duties and responsibilities, for example during the nineteenth century, the sick, poor, and destitute sometimes relied on the parish for aid.

In Devonshire at the time of the Domesday Book there were 980 vills containing about 9000 hamlets or farms.

Ideas return! The UK government policy in recent years has been to devolve many duties and responsibilities to secular parish councils. (Note. These secular parish councils may share common boundaries with the Church of England parishes, but are different institutions.)

Villein:

Wealthiest class of peasant. They usually cultivated 20-40 acres of land, often in isolated strips.

Virgate:

One quarter of a hide. However, in the Devonshire Domesday Book, was used as a unit of tax rather than of land area. Hemyock was assessed as paying Geld for one Virgate.

To Index.

W.

Wall Walk:

The area along the tops of the walls from which soldiers defend both castle and town.

Warpentake:

Weapon-taking. Sub-division of land in areas formerly under Norse control - including Northern and Eastern areas of Britain - equivalent to Anglo Saxon Hundred.

Ward:

Enclosed, defensive courtyard or bailey. Also a child under the protection of a guardian. See wardship.

Wardship:

The right of a feudal lord to the income of a fief during the minority of its heir. The lord was required to maintain the fief and to take care of the material needs of the ward. When the ward came of age, the lord was required to release the fief to them in the same condition in which it was received.

Waste:

Term generally given to land which was unusable or un-cultivated within a holding. It was not taxed. It sometimes referred to land destroyed by war or raids, which likewise was not subject to tax. Land around the Battle of Hastings (1066), took many years to recover from the predations of the armies.

Watling Street:

Roman road from London, via Wroxeter, to Chester.

Wattle, Wattle and Daub:

A mat (wattle) of woven sticks and twigs used in walls and fences. When plastered with mud (daub), forming wattle and daub, often used in the walls of dwellings. Recent repairs to a modest 17th century farm labourer's house near here uncovered the (slightly) more modern technique of lath and plaster.

White Monk:

Common name for member of the Cistercian Order, derived from the colour of their habit.

Witan:

(also called the Witenagemot): Council composed of nobles and ecclesiastics which advised the Anglo Saxon Kings of England. Also chose the successor to the throne. Resembles the commune concilium.

To Index.

Y.

Yeoman:

See Man-at-Arms.

Yoke:

A measurement of land in Kent equal to one quarter of a sulong.