Compiled for Env
H (MPH) : Asst Prof Shalasai
Huangprasert
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I. Major Health and Sanitary Factors
A comprehensive housing
ordinance or code includes minimum requirements for adequate heat, light,
ventilation, sanitation, space, and occupancy. Various studies have provided
evidence of the relaitionship between unsanitary
conditions, overcrowding, inadequate heat, light, and ventilation and health
problems such as the tranmission of various diseases
and infections. Studies to evaluate the effects of conditions within man's
living environment upon his mental health and emotional stability are being
undertaken by the U.S. Public Health Service. Within all comprehensive housing
ordinances, there are appropriate standards for the important health and
sanitation factors.
A Heat
Minumum inside heating
temperatures vary little throughout the country except for the marked
difference between the localities with very mild or very cold climates. Some
state and local housing codes have set 70°F as the minimum
standard. They vary, however, on the outside
temperature that must prevail before the inside statdard
of 70°F must be met. The 1975 "APHA-CDC Recommended
Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance," for example, required it to
be maintained under ordianry minimum winter
conditions. Of necessity, therefore, you must be guided by your local code
for quantitative standards. If there are no quantitative standards in your
local code, Table No. 1 in Chapter 26 of the "American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Handbook of
Fundamentals", gives minimum design temperatures for different areas of
the country under winter conditions. The publication is readily available from
most public libraries.
The "APHA-CDC
Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" states that a
temperature of at least 68°F at a distance of 36 inches
above the floor level should exist. ASHRAE states that the temperature should be
measured at the breathing line 5 feet above the floor or at the seating level
30 inches above the floor in a location where the temperature-sensing device is
not exposed to a condition of abnormal heat gain or heat loss. Local code
requirements should, however, prevail. If the local code does not give a
specific statement, any of the previously mentioned methods may be used, but
every housing inspector in the community should measure the temperature the
same way.
B Thermal
Environment
One of the basic
requirements in healthful housing is maintenence of a
thermal environment that will avoid undue heat loss from the human body. Heat
loss results in lowered resistance, particularly to respitory
tract infections, and to some extent all other infections.
Room temperatures vary
considerably from floor to ceiling. Since hot air rises, the coolest
temperature will be found near the floor and the warmest near the ceiling. The
temperature of 70°F maintained near the ceiling might be
far from adequate for protection required. Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the
1975 APHA-CDC Recommended Ordinance specifies that temperature measurements for
the determination of compliance with requirements be made at a level
approximately 36 inches from the floor. This ensures that children, even the
younger children who are most active, are in an area where the temperature is
sufficiently warm to give them the protection they need. It also assures the
less active adults a location in an area where the temperatures are at a desirable
level.
C Natural Light
Most municipalities
require at least one window or skylight facing directly to the outdoors for
every habitable room. They are also in general agreement that this window area
or skylight area be 10% of the total floor area of the room. Note here that a
window located less than 3 feet from an outside wall or other structure that
extends above the ceiling level of the room is not deemed to face directly to
the outdoors. A window that faces directly into a completely enclosed court is
counted as facing directly to the outdoors as long as the court is greater than
3 feet in its least dimensions.
Daylight should be used as
fully as possible in all buildings no matter how adequate other forms of light
may be. Satisfactory natural illumination depends upon the intensity of
daylight or sky brightness and the amount, distribution, and quality of this
light in a room. Natural light is particularly important in low-income housing
where artificial lighting will be held to a minimum. Light is important in
showing up dirt and thus leads to more cleanliness within the home. The
bactericidal effect of light transmitted through glass is questionable. The
bright, naturally lit room is, however, certainly more conductive to healthy
mental attitudes than a dim. dark room lit only by
artificial sources.
In different parts of the
country different standards of window size are possible. For
instance in a sunny climate, such as that found in the southwestern desert.
a smaller window area would supply adequate
illumination and may be desirable to prevent excessive glare in a room. In a climate in the northern part of the country. however 10% of the floor area should be a minimum for window
area in consideration of the reduced amount of sunlight present. especially in the winter time.
The lighting requirements
shall be deemed satisfactory if every habitable room has one window facing
directly to the outdoors and the total window area in each habitable room is at
least 10% of the floor area of that room. In computing window areas no
deduction is made for sashes and trim used to hold the glass panes in place. If
a skylight type of window on the ceiling of the habitable room serves as the
only window in the room, the area of the horizontal projection of the skylight
should also be at least 10% of the total floor area of the room. In a room with
both a window and a skylight the total area of both should be at least 10% of
the floor area.
D Artificial Light
It is a common requirement
that every habitable room have two separate floor- or wall-type convenience
outlets or else one such convenience outlet and one supplied ceiling-type
electrical light fixture. It is also required that public halls and stairways
be sufficiently lighted at all times in such a manner as to allow safe travel
back and forth. The 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended Ordinance states that every
habitable room and nonhabitable room used for food
preparation shall have two wall-type duplex electric convenience outlets or one
such duplex convenience outlet and one supplied wall or ceiling-type electric
light fixture. No duplex outlet shall serve more than two fixtures or
appliances.
Every water closet
compartment, bathroom, kitchen or kitchenette, laundry room, furnace room, and
public hall shall contain at least one supplied ceiling or wall-type electric
light fixture. Convenient switches or equivalent devices for turning on one
light for each room or passageway shall be located so as to permit the area
ahead to be lighted.
Every public hall and
stairway in a multiple dwelling shall be adequately lighted by natural or
electric light or both at all times so as to provide in all parts at least 10
foot candles of light at the tread or floor level. If the structure contains
not more than two dwelling units this light may be controlled by a switch and
be turned on when needed instead of being turned on full time.
Electricity is as
essential to the modern home as heating or ventilation. It has long replaced
gas kerosene. and other utilities for lighting because
it is more economical and, when properly used, safer. It has, probably more
than any other single item, made practical the use of labor-saving devices for
household tasks and thereby promoted the cleanliness of both the dwelling and
the person.
Since the mid-1930's,
electricity has been provided even to the most remote areas. Individual
electrical generating units are available for use in places where industry or
government has not provided electricity to the homeowner. Only the most
backward and most primitive areas of this country are today without service of
this utility. Certainly, all metropolitan areas have electricity, and there is
no reason why this servant of mankind should not be available in the home.
The 1975 "APHA-CDC
Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" allows a dwelling
that is located more than 300 feet from the nearest electrical source to be
without this service; however, there are very few dwellings left in the
populated areas of this country that do not have, within 300 feet, the lines of
the local electric utility.
Although electricity is a
valuable servant, it can also be a severe safety hazard. Among the most common
faults in providing electrical service is the furnishing of inadequate outlets.
This results in overloading of the lines, causing possible overheating of wires
and fixtures and subsequent fire hazards. Improperly installed facilities and
outlets furnish a fire hazard, as well as a safety hazard, particularly to
small children.
When inadequate outlets are
provided there is a tendency, particularly among the poorly educated, to
connect many high-wattage items such as toasters, irons, televisions, and other
similar items to a single outlet.
Kitchen, living rooms, and
rooming units are most likely to contain several electrical appliances in
addition to the lighting fixtures. This is not necessarily true in toilet
rooms, laundry rooms, furnace rooms, and public hallways. It is very important
therefore, that rooms most likely to have a large number of appliances be
required to have an adequate number of outlets in order to prevent overloading
of circuits and installation of amateurish and possibly hazardous extension
wiring.
E Ventilation
The ordinance requirement
for the total openable window area in every habitable
room is 45 percent of the minimum window area except where an approved
mechanical means of ventilation is installed.
Adequate ventilation is
essential in meeting many of the fundamental needs in housing. Among these are
the maintenance of a thermal environment that will permit adequate heat loss
from the human body, provision of an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity,
and provision of possibilities for esthetic satisfaction in the home and its
surroundings.
The factors controlling
heat loss in the body are air temperature, mean radiant temperature of
surrounding surfaces, relative humidity, and air movement. It is particularly
important that cool, moving air be made available in sleeping rooms since the
impact of cool air is of great value in promoting healthful sleep. Moreover,
odors given off by the body exert a definitely harmful influence on appetite
and therefore upon health. There can be no doubt that the well-ventilated home,
like the well illuminated home, is more conducive to healthful mental attitudes
than a poorly ventilated or poorly illuminated home.
Every bathroom and toilet
room should comply with the housing ordinance's light and ventilation
requirements for habitable rooms except that windows or skylights should not be
required if the ventilation system is adequate. Many codes state that
mechanical means must provide at least two to six changes of air per hour.
As has been previously
mentioned, light promotes cleanliness. This is particularly important in
bathrooms and toilet rooms, where cleanliness is essential to sanitation and
proper attitudes are essential to cleanliness. Ventilation is also necessary in
these rooms because they are subject to a high concentration of body odors and
humidity. Since these rooms are frequently located, for economical construction
reasons, within the inner part of the structure and away from the exterior
walls, windows and skylights are not always practical. The provision of
artificial light sources and mechanical ventilation will, therefore, accomplish
the basic purposes of light and ventilation requirements and at the same time
meet practical standards of construction .
F Space and
Occupancy
The maximum density of
occupancy for any dwelling unit has been set by the APHA-CDC Ordinance at 150
square feet of total habitable room area for the first occupant and 100 square
feet of floor space for every additional occupant, with the floor space
calculated on the basis of total habitable room area. The ordinance further
requires that the total number of persons allowed may not be more than twice
the number of habitable rooms in the dwelling unit.
If more than one family
plus two occupants unrelated to the families, not including guests or domestic
employees, are to occupy a dwelling unit, a permit for a rooming house must be
granted by the appropriate local authority.
The ceiling height of any
habitable room is set at a minimum of 7 feet except in rooms under a sloping
ceiling. In those instances at least one half of the floor area must have a
minimum ceiling height of 7 feet. The floor area located under the portion of
the room where the ceiling height is less than 5 feet may not be used in
computing total floor area of the room when the maximum permissible ccupancy is being determined.
Space located up to 4 feet
below the grade of the ground may not be used as a habitable room unless
approved by the appropriate authority in writing.
In dwelling units of two
or more rooms, each sleeping room must contain at least 70 square feet of floor
space for the first occupant, and at least 50 square feet of floor space for
each additional occupant .
Dwellings or dwelling
units containing two or more sleeping rooms must have a room arrangement that
permits access to the bathroom or water closet without passage through another
sleeping room.
Other space requirements
state that each dwelling unit shall have at least 4 square feet of
floor-to-ceiling-height closet space for the personal effects of each
permissible occupant. If this space is lacking, in whole or in part, an amount
of square footage equal to the space deficiency shall be subtracted from the
computed area of habitable room space used in determining permissible
occupancy.
Overcrowding in housing is
one of the greatest contributing factors in the transmission of diseases,
particularly those of the respiratory tract. In addition, crowding violates one
of the basic maxims of healthful housing-the need for privacy of the
individual. Privacy in the home and privacy in the use of sleeping bath, and
toilet rooms dictate that the user must be able to use these facilities without
violating the privacy of another person or without having his privacy violated
by another. Crowding makes proper cleansing and maintenance difficult and less
likely to be done.
Rooms, to be considered
habitable, must be of a size sufficient for use by normal-size people. Any room
in which half the total floor area is usable only with difficulty, in which the
ceiling is too low, or in which a person has problems moving around can hardly
be considered habitable.
The use of below-grade
space as habitable rooms in dwelling units is allowed basically to permit use
of the so-called English Basement and Garden Apartment, which would otherwise
meet the code requirements, since it conforms to the other provisions of the
code for habitable rooms. Obviously, any room that is extremely damp, dark, and
poorly ventilated would not be conducive to healthful occupancy by any human
being.
G Sanitation in the
Control of Arthropods and Rodents
The presence of vectors
such as arthropods (flies, mosquitoes, fleas, cockroaches, lice, mites, ticks,
and bedbugs) and rodents (rats and mice) in a house and its premises result
from neglect of basic responsibilities for cleanliness. Rodents and arthropods
are vectors of disease and cause injury to humans. In many cases, rats and
mice, or insects and other arthropods may not necessarily pose an immediate
disease threat. They are often present in such numbers or in such places as to
limit the enjoyment and utilization of our environment. In this sense, they are
pests disturbing the well-being of man and inspection and control programs are
justified on this basis alone. Food, harborage, and water, which are life
essentials for arthropods and rodents, occur frequently in and around all types
of buildings whenever these vectors prevail. Their numbers increase rapidly as
standards of cleanliness and maintenance decline. Substandard residential
housing and commercial establishments produce and maintain greater and more
widespread vector populations than well kept, clean residential and commercial
areas. Lack of knowledge, carelessness, and indifference are usually the basic
reasons for such conditions.
Although pesticides
(insecticides and rodenticides) may produce temporary
pest reduction, only permanent techniques such as sanitation and pest proofing
bring about long-term control. Sanitation includes storage, collection, and
disposal of refuse, together with premises maintenance and the proper storage
of products and materials. It is important that all building, housing, and
other related codes and ordinances include adequate provisions for control of
pests and correction of conditions conducive to their proliferation. When a
building, structure, or dwelling becomes infested, inspection and control
measures are required. Inspection reports should list violations found and call
for initial extermination and continued control. The causative conditions for
the presence of pests must also be corrected by the responsible Persons.
The housing inspector
should be able to identify correctly the various arthropods and rodents that
infest a house and its premises. It is important to know the habits and
characteristics of common household pests and be able to inform the public
about the importance of their elimination and control .
Rodent
problems are common to most urban areas in the
Rats
and mice are responsible for spread of a number of diseases, either directly,
as by contamination of human food with their urine or feces, or indirectly by
way of fleas and mites. The more common rodent-borne diseases are rat-bite
fever, leptrospirosis, salmonellosis,
trichinosis, murine typhus fever, and plague. Rickettsialpox is transmitted from the house mouse to man
by the bite of the mouse mite. Rat bite, a public health problem, is associated
with heavy urbanization, occurring primarily in lower economic areas exhibiting
substandard housing, crowding, and poor sanitation. Rats consume or contaminate
large quantities of food and feed, and destroy other property, as when they
cause fires by gnawing the insulation from electric wires.
The
Norway rat is the most common rat found in the
The
house mouse is the smallest of domestic rodents, weighing one half to three
fourths in ounces, with small slender body, moderately large prominent ears,
and semi-naked tail about as long as the body and head combined. Its fur is
dusty gray.
Control
of rats and mice requires (a) sanitation to eliminate their food
and harborage, (b) effective rodent proofing, and (c)
efficient supplemental killing programs.
Information
about habits and characteristics of rodents and inspection and control
techniques may be found in the following publications of the U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease
Control: "Control of Domestic Rats and Mice," "Biological
Factors in Domestic Rodent Control," "Rodent-borne Disease Control
Through Rodent Stoppage," "Urban Rat Surveys," and the
"APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance
."
The
housing inspector should be able to identify correctly arthropods that are
common household pests. It is also important for him to recognize these pests
so that he can give the owner or occupant accurate instructions on appropriate
control measures. Such household pests include:
a Fleas-Unlike
most blood-sucking insects, fleas feed at frequent intervals. They do not
remain on one host, but feed temporarily, and transfer to several other hosts
which may be of entirely different species. The dog flea will feed on man as
well as on dogs and cats. For this reason, and the fact that fleas insert their
mouth parts to suck blood, they are particularly prone to transmit pathogenic
organisms. The frequent biting is due to the fact that fleas are very easily
disturbed while feeding and seldom complete a meal at one time. Some species of
fleas are involved in the transmission of plague, endemic typhyus,
salmonella typhimurium, and undulant fever. In
addition, fleas are intermediate hosts of helminths
such as dog tapeworm and dwarf tapeworm.
b Fly - The house fly and many of its
relatives are common agents in the mechanical transmission of certain
infections which are often grouped under the term, "fly-borne
diseases." The mouth parts, the numerous body spines, and the sticky pads
on the feet have been found to carry a large number of different pathogens
causing human disease. Some of these pathogens may pass unaltered through the
digestive tract and may remain viable in the feces Among the pathogens carried
mechanically by the house fly are those causing typhoid fever, cholera,
bacillary and amebic dysentery, tuberculosis, tetanus, and anthrax.
From
the disease viewpoint, it should be emphasized that from feeding on excrement,
sputum, open sores, or putrefying matter, the flies may quickly pass to food
and milk, to mucous membranes or to uncontaminated wounds. It is these habits
that make this fly and related forms such efficient
mechanical vectors of disease.
When
feeding, the fly frequently moistens substances with a "vomit drop"
which is regurgitated from the crop. This vomit drop may be teeming with
typhoid and cholera bacilli, or with organisms causing amebic or bacillary
dysentery which are thus transferred to food and milk.
c Bedbugs-A
heavily infested house has a distinctive odor. Some people are very sensitive
to bedbug bites, while others are hardly aware of them. This insect has not
been incriminated in the transmission of any communicable disease. Bedbugs may
cause nervous disorders in sensitive people, and may contribute to the ill
health of both children and adults. Although bedbugs will feed readily on
poultry, mice, rats, and other animals, the preferred host is man.
d Cockroach -
Cockroaches have become well adjusted to living with man. They harbor in the
cracks and crevices provided by human building methods. They subsist on the
bits of food man scatters where he lives or travels. Cockroaches have been
reported nibbling on the eyelashes, fingernails, and toenails of sleeping
children. They impart an unsavory odor and taste into food they infest. They
carry the organisms causing enteric diseases (diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid,
food poisoning) from sewers and garbage cans to the food of man and have been
found naturally infected with many other pathogens.
(1)
American Cockroach - This roach is capable of flights of a gliding
nature. It is found in alleyways, yards, sewerage systems, and trees. It
frequently enters buildings under doorways. It prefers warm resting places such
as steam tunnels and basements during the winter months, and causes damage to
book bindings, manuscripts, clothing, glossy paper with starch sizing, and
labels from bottles. It is often trapped in vessels containing beer, syrup, or
sweetened drinks. It is reddish to dark brown in color. The adults are about 1½ to 2 inches long.
(2)
Australian Cockroach - is reddish to dark brown with yellow markings
and streaks. The adult is about 1 inch long. They are usually found in warm
damp places in or out of doors.
(3)
Brown-Banded Cockroach - is yellowish or reddish brown in color and
the fertile eggs often show greenish through the walls. It is difficult to
control because it does not confine its activities to the kitchen, bathroom,
and pantry, but is found throughout the house.
(4)
German Cockroach - is probably the most common cockroach found in
restaurants. It is sometimes called the "croton bug." This pest
enters the home with bottled drinks, potatoes, onions, other foods, and
furniture.
e Ticks-All ticks are parasitic during some period of their
lives. They are annoying pests, and in addition, they are transmitters of the
causative agents of many diseases. Their bites are irritating, and often when
they are removed forcibly, the mouth parts remain in the skin, resulting in
infection causing ulceration or septicemia. Ticks are responsible for
transmitting Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
f Mites - As a group these
arachnids are free living, but many are parasitic. The parasitic forms produce
a mild to severe dermatitis, often followed by allergic reactions. Some mites
are the etiological agents of mange and scabies of man and animals.
g Lice - Lice do not leave the
host or host's clothing voluntarily but only when they are accidentally
dislodged. They are mainly disseminated by physical contact with infested
persons or their clothing. The bite of the head and body louse provokes rosy
swellings and, coupled with the ensuing scratching, produces the characteristic
scarring and bronzing of the skin referred to as "vagabond's
disease."
Murine typhus can be transmitted
from man to man by the body louse.
h Mosquito - Mosquitoes are known
transmitters of encephalitis, malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and other
diseases. Of all the insects that jeopardize the health of man, mosquitoes rank
first. Not only do they transmit disease, but they occur in such numbers that
they cause great annoyance.
i Termites - Termites are a key
factor in the deterioration of housing in many parts of the
Termites
may be grouped into three types based upon the type of damage they do:
(1) wet
wood termites damage living trees and are of relatively minor importance in most
areas;
(2)dry
wood termites establish colonies in cured wood and, while rare, may be a problem in
museums and storage warehouses;
(3)subterranean
termites
attack wood from colonies established in the soil and are the ones of the greatest
economic importance. These are very sensitive to moisture conditions; and,
although they may feed on wood. they must leave it and
return to the soil every few hours for moisture. Ordinarily they attack only
wood that is in contact with the soil, but they can build cellulose tunnels
through which they can climb to attack wood above ground level.
H. Childhood Lead
Poisoning and Housing Inspection
Childhood lead poisoning
is a disease of the environment-including the housing environment. The major
lead source for children is lead contained in paint. In the past, paint
containing significant amounts of lead was used extensively on interiors of
dwelling units. Lead is still used in exterior paint in many sections of the
country. As these dwelling units deteriorate and fall into disrepair, the
leaded paint peels, flakes, and chips off of many painted surfaces. The paint
is then accessible to small children who will chew and mouth non-food items
such as window sills, door facings, and paint chips.
If a child is identified
with undue lead absorption, the housing inspector's role in the prevention of
lead poisoning is identifying the most probable lead hazard in that child's
environment. This hazard is often leaded paint. The housing inspector must
educate the occupants to this danger and ensure that appropriate hazard
reduction occurs.
Childhood lead poisoning
from ingestion of leaded paint is a disease whose eradication could be
accomplished by removing its cause - leaded paint. There are, however, over 30
million dwelling units in the
The
method of choice for identification of lead paint hazards in the field is the
portable x-ray fluorescence analyzer. These instruments have: gained wide
acceptance for making quantitative measurements quickly and reliably on painted
surfaces for lead content down to a level of 0.5 mg/cm2. While this level may
be hazardous if ingested repeatedly, a lower level lead in paint is difficult
to identify because of limits on instrument technology applicable to field use.
Developmental work is being carried out which will allow quantitative
measurement of levels below 0.5 mg/cm2.
As
a supplement to x-ray fluorescent determinations, paint scrapings and loose
chips may be collected for chemical analysis in the laboratory. In sample
collection, it is important to obtain only paint for an accurate analysis.
Interpreting
values obtained by x-ray fluorescence and wet chemistry on the same sample is
difficult since the two methods are not directly comparable. The x-ray
fluorescence instruments measure the total amount of lead present per unit area
while the chemical test measures the amount of lead by weight of the sample
tested. If even a small amount of underlying substrate is present in the
sample, the chemical test will give false low values.
2 Initiating Action
Decisions concerning actions to be taken to control the sources of
lead available to children must be in accordance with appropriate ordinances
and codes. Highest priority should be given to eliminating paint hazards where
children with undue lead absorption reside or frequently visit. The
availability and condition of the painted surfaces, and the amount of lead
contained in the paint are also primary reasons for action.
3 . Hazard Abatement
Techniques
Hazard
abatement activities may vary with the condition of the dwelling. Sometimes
complete renovation is necessary while in other circumstances the occupant may
be able to minimize the hazard with simple methods. Wire brushing loose paints
from the walls and sweeping up paint chips from the floor may be all that is
necessary to prevent further accumulation of lead in a child with a low level
of lead absorption.
If
the lead hazard requires major action, two alternative approaches are
available. The leaded paint can be removed or a protective barrier can be
placed over the leaded paint.
a Paint Removal
There
are several methods of paint removal in current use:
These
include:
(1) Chemical paint removers
(2) Sanding and scraping
(3) Heating to soften
(4) Combination of above
When
using any of the above-procedures, care must be exercised to ensure that
workmen use approved protective equipment and/or adequate ventilation to
prevent inhaling lead dust or vapors. Children and other household members must
also be protected or removed from exposure. Toxic lead fumes occurring when
paint is overheated are especially dangerous. Proper attention must be given to
disposal of leaded paint removed from the dwelling.
b Principles of
Shielding
The basic principle of shielding is to isolate
leaded surfaces so that a child cannot get to those surfaces. There are seven
characteristics of an ideal shielding material:
Flat Surface Covering Materials
Five
different flat surface covering materials have been used in shielding leaded
surfaces. These materials include the following:
Liquid Covering Materials
Some
of the above listed materials can be applied only to flat surfaces. In order to
find a material which will provide a shield over both flat and curved surfaces,
several liquid covering materials have been used, but to date only a limited
degree of success has been obtained. The two liquid covering materials which
have some use as a shield of leaded surfaces are as follows:
(1) urethane-based paint - this material requires
the removal of all loose paint and plaster before application; repeated
applications may be needed; new surface may peel if old base paint is not
removed; should be considered only as a temporary or short-term method, e.g.,
may be ideal in building scheduled for demolition within a few years.
(2)
pigmented masonry conditioner-this material requires
the prior removal of all flaking, peeling, and scaling paint: material has a tung oil base which permits penetration into the base wall
material and provides effective shielding; several coats are needed to obtain
sufficient bonding of the surface material.
I
Sanitation: Water Supply and Temperature
Some
housing codes specify only that dwelling units have hot and cold water supply
at all times. Other codes, however, specify a minimum rate of flow for hot and
cold water of 1 gallon per minute from each fixture. The temperature generally
requested and accepted for hot water is a minimum of 120°F
at the outlet.
J
Sanitation: Septic Tanks
There
are 17 million people in the
Before
a septic tank can be installed it must be determined that there is a correct
location for a disposal field. The best guide to future performance is
carefully prepared soil maps together with the experience with each soil in a
region. In the absence of such maps percolation tests provide some guidance.
The
conventional septic tank sewage and disposal system consists of two main
parts-a septic tank and an absorption field or seepage pit. The tank settles,
stores, and digests the solids (sludge and scum). As sewage enters the tank,
the heavier solids settle to the bottom and become sludge, and the lighter
particles, including grease, rise to the top of the liquid and remain as scum.
The organic matter contained in both sludge and scum is decomposed by action of
anaerobic bacteria (the type of bacteria that thrive in absence of air). These
bacteria gain their life-processing oxygen by reducing complex organic
substances. Gases are vented to atmosphere, and liquids are discharged to the
disposal field.
Digestive
action by the bacteria takes time, and so the tank must be of sufficient
capacity to store solids for the required time. As raw sewage enters the tank,
an equal amount of liquid effluent is discharged so that the liquid level
remains fairly constant. The tank inlet has a baffle to divert the incoming
sewage downward. An outlet baffle or pipe fitting retains solids but allows
discharge of liquid to the absorption or disposal field. Recommended
retention period of the liquid ranges from
Public
Health Service research has shown that two or more solids retention compartment
tanks are more efficient than one. Rectangular compartment tanks are as good as
any, and change in tank shapes to oval, or others offers no special advantages.
The flow from the septic tank goes into the absorption field to allow liquid to
be dissipated in the soil.
K
Sanitation: Drainage
The
dangers of puddles and pools of stagnant water can be great depending on the
location, the depth, and amount of the stagnant water. Stagnant water, whether
it be on the ground or in receptacles such as cans,
bottles, or rubber tires, can be a major health hazard in any area of the
country. Mosquitoes use these pools as breeding grounds. Female mosquitoes lay
their eggs in water, and the eggs hatch into a larval stage. The larvae later
change to a pupal stage and remain in the
water-filled container until they change into adult mosquitoes and begin the
fourth stage of their life cycle. It is in this fourth or adult stage that
mosquitoes can carry diseases to man. The elimination of ponds, puddles, and
other sources of stagnant water is the best way of eliminating mosquito
hazards. If the pond or pool is large enough, it can also be a safety hazard
for small children who may stumble into the water and drown.
Poor
drainage may create another hazard if electricity is nearby. The obvious danger
of being electrocuted exists when water and electricity are both present. The
inspector should always look for evidence of water near the main fuse box in
the house and for broken or frayed electrical wires in the kitchen, bathroom,
water closet compartment, or laundry room.
Excessive
dampness caused by puddles and other small bodies of stagnant water or leaking
plumbing fixtures can cause structural damage to a house. The water itself can
cause rotting of main structural members or can offer the campground needed by
subterranean termites for their attack on wooden structures.
L
Sanitation: Rubbish and Garbage Storage
Every
occupant of a dwelling must maintain the part of the dwelling unit that he
occupies and controls. The storage and disposal of rubbish and garbage in a
safe and sanitary manner is considered the responsibility of the occupant
insofar as the garbage and trash is generated in his portion of the structure.
It is the owner's responsibility to see that arrangements are made by the
tenant for the adequate removal of this refuse.
In
a structure containing three or more dwelling units it is also the owner's
responsibility to supply containers for the storage of refuse and to make
provisions for its safe and sanitary removal as often as is necessary to
maintain a sanitary structure.
In
the case of a single- or two-family dwelling, it shall be the responsibility of
the occupant to furnish facilities or containers. This does not preclude any
agreement, whether written or oral, between owner and occupant for other types
of disposal practices; however, any other type of disposal practice must be safe
and sanitary. As previously stated, avoiding the attraction of insects and
rodents is essential to the public health. Refuse furnishes food and harboring
places for rodents and tends to attract them to areas where they have not
previously been present. The same is true of insects. The requirement that the
proper facilities for the storage of rubbish be provided is to fix
responsibility for maintenance and use of these facilities with a particular
party whether it be the owner or the occupant of the dwelling. In the case of
single-family or two-family dwellings, it is possible for the appropriate
department to fix the responsibility for improper use and maintenance of
rubbish storage facilities. Such is not the case, however, for multiple-family
dwellings, and the responsibility for this use is therefore placed on the owner
or operator.
M
Sanitation: Kitchen Facilities
All
kitchens or kitchenettes should contain a kitchen sink, cabinets or shelves (or
both), a stove, and a refrigerator. Without these items the unit is not a
dwelling unit but a rooming unit. If one of these items is missing, the health
of the occupants is in jeopardy because of poor food sanitation. The kitchen
sink should be an approved type and not a hand-washing sink. It should be large
enough to hold a reasonably sized dish or pot. The sink should be connected to
the hot- and cold-water systems. It is preferable, but not mandatory, to have a
mixing faucet for safety reasons. The drain should be connected to the waste
line and should include a trap. If the local plumbing code calls for a grease
trap, it should be installed.
The
purpose of a kitchen sink is the correct washing of dishes used in
preparing-and consuming meals. The diseases that can be caused by improperly
washed dishes include food poisoning by salmonellae, shigellae,
and staphylococci.
All
kitchens should be supplied with adequate cabinets or shelves for the storage
of eating, drinking, and cooking equipment. These may also be used to store
foodstuffs that do not require refrigeration. It is important that newly
cleaned eating and cooking equipment be stored on a clean surface so that
contamination does not occur.
A
stove or similar device for cooking food is necessary for maintaining adequate
nutrition of-the inhabitants. A diet of only cold food soon becomes boring and
of doubtful nutritional value. Additionally, some foods need to be cooked to
provide safety from parasites and pathogens. A refrigerator or similar device
for storing food is also required in all kitchens. The refrigerator should be
capable of storing food at temperatures between 32°F and
45°F under ordinary maximum summer conditions. An ice box
would not meet the requirements, because it cannot keep the temperature below
45°F at all times during the summer. A freezer compartment
is not necessary in this refrigerator, but it is always desirable because of
the large amount of frozen foods now on the market. The purpose of a
refrigerator is to protect the occupants of a dwelling unit from illness caused
by improperly stored food. An economic factor is also involved since it is more
expensive to buy food for one meal at a time.
III. Inspection
Procedures
A. Although inspection
procedures vary from city to city, there are several common items that the
inspector can and should check. These include:
B The inspector will
also find that there are other items he should check, and that, when these
conditions are found, they should be referred to the appropriate local
authority. These include:
Although
he is empowered to and should order corrective action on most, if not all, of
these problems, he should also refer these sources or evidences of disease to
the health agency.
C
Appropriate Tools
The
inspector should always carry a flashlight, thermometer, and a measuring tape.
Moreover, when infestation is present, it would also be well for him to carry
repellant so that he does not transport pests. Other equipment will be carried
according to local department requirements.
D
Reminder
In
carrying out the health and sanitary aspects of housing inspections, the
inspectors must keep in mind that responsibility is there for them to assume.
They cannot do "just their jobs." They must do the "extra"
that puts them above an automaton and raises them to the class of dedicated,
trained guardians of public health, safety, and welfare.