There is a favourite story which my parents like to tell of my childhood. They say, with a chuckle of fondness, that when they were house shopping many years ago that because of me, they knew when they had found the right house. As soon as we entered the house I am told that I started cavorting about, smiling and saying what a beautiful house it was. (I was about three and a half years old) Five years later, when it was time to move again, it was my younger sister that served as the baby barometer. This time is was her, that reacted to the house. Reassured that something must be right, my parents bought that house. What was this something? Both houses had sunny southern exposures. Both houses were located in pleasant neighbourhoods. Both properties produced bountiful gardens. Was this something, feng shui?
The focus of this course is to investigate the effects and the processes involved in improving the sustainability of the urban habitat - be it in the magnitude of a city, community or single building. This can be accomplished by �greening� the city- to which there are many benefits. However, adding foliage to a building only remedies a problem that was present from the moment the building was designed. In order to solve the problem- be it sick building syndrome, inefficient energy use, or just plain ugliness, the nature of the building itself must be examined. The search for the formula of the ideal building raises just as many queries as there are potential solutions. Numerous concerns need to be addressed in order to design a building that is holistic. In addition to being ecologically sound and energy efficient, this building must be aesthetically pleasing to the eye and soul.
Aesthetics is an elusive criterion. It is a matter that has been discussed for centuries in the circles of philosophy, art and psychology of all cultures and countries. The ancient Chinese belief, feng shui has recently become popular with interior designers in North America as tool to achieve aesthetic harmony . For the purposes of interior design, feng shui is arranging one�s surroundings so as to improve the atmosphere.
Two schools of practice exist. The Form or Landscape school is concerned with landform configurations. Celestial animals such as the Dragon and the Tiger are used as metaphors to the landforms. The second major practice, Compass feng shui involves calculations and metaphysical speculations to determine good and bad feng shui. The system of calculations are based on the symbols of the I Ching . Compass feng shui make use of the Lo-Pan, Ba-Gua and the Trigrams. The calculations are complicated, varying with which branch of this school is being practiced as well as factors such room dimensions, compass directions and even position of the planets! Essentially, the underlying purpose of feng shui is to channel positive energy, known as chi so as to reap benefits.
Traditionally feng shui was applied to finding a good location for a tomb. As pleasing one�s ancestors meant that the heaven�s smiled upon you, a well-placed tomb improved one�s chance of good fortune. Today feng shui is practiced widely in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia. Because hiring and using a feng shui master is expensive and is a sign of bourgeoisie, feng shui is not as commonly practiced in mainland China where socialism is intact (Wilton). Feng shui in the People�s Republic is condemned as �superstition� (Chua-Eoan, 1987). In North America feng shui has experienced a surge in popularity. At a recent IIDEX (Interior Design Exposition) show in Toronto the feng shui workshop was the most popular.
Not only do the monied Hong Kong immigrant clientele expect good feng shui, but the general awareness on the part of the public has increased the demand for good feng shui. Real estate mogul Donald Trump has incorporated the principles of feng shui to his towers. Rita Wilson, wife to actor Tom Hanks is said to have a copy of Lillian Too�s Feng Shui on her nightside table (Von Hahn, 1997). Numerous books can be found about applying feng shui to one�s homes. Many web sites on the Internet are devoted to feng shui and the practitioners for which the sites advertise. Although some of the rules of feng shui seem ridiculous in the context of the twentieth century, it is evident by its present popularity that many underlying principles are still applicable.
In Fundamentals of Urban Design , Richard Hedman discusses the aesthetics of city design. Principles such as �space�, �contrast� and �continuity� are explained. Space, as it is described by Hedman has the ability to flow and �leak away� in the manner of a gaseous substance. City plazas must be surrounded by buildings of appropriate dimensions so that the space can be contained. This manner of conceptualizing design is not unlike that of feng shui. The Chinese words feng shui, literally translated to mean �wind water�, capture the idea of movement. The underlying principle of feng shui is to achieve balance. Good feng shui requires the balance of opposites; yin and yang, fire and water, Tiger and Dragon. When these opposites are in balance, harmony is created. This is necessary to ensure that chi is able to travel auspiciously. Chi is a concept that must be understood in order to practice feng shui. The word �chi� translated means breath or air. Used in relation to feng shui, it refers to cosmic energy, the dragon�s breath or the breath of life. Whatever alias chi goes by, the essential thing to understand is that it FLOWS.
Hedman uses the Chase Manhattan Bank Plaza as a case study for improving the flow of space. Originally the plaza consisted of a large empty space contained by narrow streets and tall neighboring buildings. However the space lacked focus and was rather uninteresting. In 1972 an abstract sculpture by Jean Dubuffet was installed. The feel of the plaza was instantly transformed. The sculpture, which oddly resembles a stand of oversized toadstools, gave the area a visual focus. The space, or for our purposes the chi, no longer dissipated up the high buildings. Instead, the chi was effectively captured and allowed to filter through the form of the sculpture.
As a counter example to the Dubuffet sculpture, consider the sculpture Tilted Arc by Richard Serra. This piece of public art was an expression of the artist�s view of the world. It was installed with the intention of revitalizing the Federal Plaza in New York. What began as a poor use of space became even worse (Lang, 1994, p.89). One look at the sculpture would confirm that neither space nor chi flowed around it easily. The �tilted arc� was over eight feet tall and thirty feet long. Not only did the sculpture disrupt space, but it created a hazard to personal safety. The sculpture has since been removed.
As the urban environment is the source of many problems in terms of ecological and aesthetic disturbance, it must be considered while searching for a holistic building design. Cityscapes are often dotted with series of mismatching buildings. From an aesthetic standpoint, the contrast of old against new, short against tall, brick against glass can often clash. Just as it is with feng shui, a balance between the opposites is required. The tall modern building looms menacingly over an older, smaller neighbor. A series of transitional steps helps soften the transition from short to tall. (Figures 4 and 5) In addition, the sculptured tower benefits from a more favorable wind pattern. With a simple box shaped building, the wind at the upper levels are intercepted and redirected down to the street level. The wider and smoother the building, the greater the turbulence to the pedestrians (Hedman, 1984, p.133). Where the diagram shows arrows for wind, we can easily interchange with arrows for chi. With the sculptured building there is less of a clash with its surroundings in terms of visual and ecological function.
These urban examples demonstrate the importance of the flow of chi. The �shui� or water of feng shui can be used in both the literal and figurative sense when describing chi. Water is one of the five elements (the others being metal, wood, earth and fire) which is important to have present on your property. A slow, meandering river was ideal as a good conductor of chi. Modern buildings which observe the principles of feng shui often have a fountain, or as a less extravagant representation of water, a fish tank, worked into the design. Just as still, unmoving pools of water can be stagnant, so can chi. A dead-end street or an alcove in a room are both examples of places where chi can collect and stop flowing. The worst kind of chi to capture is sha-chi. The literal translation of sha-chi is �killing breath�. Sha is an excess of chi. A fast, torrential river would carry too much chi through your property and would be seen as harmful to one�s well-being. So too would a modern expressway. Having a highway run through one�s backyard is not only noisy, but would conduct sha through the home. These sharp, pointed and angled objects are often referred to as poison arrows. Other examples of poison arrows in the modern world are pointed edges of buildings, telephone or utility poles, and a transmission tower. If these poison arrows can not be avoided, then using the rules of feng shui, the sha can be redirected.
With the understanding that a building is to be seen as an interface, the selective mode of building design can be established. In his book,The Environmental Tradition Dean Hawkes explains the difference between the more conventional, exclusive mode of design and what he calls the selective mode of design (a summary can be found in Table 1). With the exclusive mode, the indoor and outdoor environments are excluded from one another. The amount of energy used for climate control would be equal all year. In order to minimize heat transfer between the building and the outdoors, window area would be minimized. In contrast selective modes of design makes use of available sources of light and heat, namely the sun. Factors such as building location and orientation would be paramount in order to take advantage of the ambient energy of the sun. This mode of design selects certain outdoor factors to incorporate into the building�s design. This gives added meaning to the three L�s of real estate: Location, Location, Location. In terms of feng shui, four factors must taken in consideration when choosing an appropriate site for a dwelling: the chi of the neighborhood; the site orientation; the five elements and their balance to each other; and the power of water (Jurock). Feng shui emphasizes the importance of a southern exposure. Ideally the front door should be facing south with an open space such as a valley or meadow leading up to it. This adversity to the north has historical significance. Having a protective landform such as a mountain in behind gave the home protection against the cold prevailing winds from the north and invasions from the north. The form school of feng shui refers to Green Dragon and the White Tiger, two of the four celestial creatures used to symbolize land forms. The Dragon is represented by elevated landforms such as a range of gently undulating hills. Dragons are not easily found although clues such as lush vegetation, gentle breezes and fresh air indicate the presence of positive chi. When the Dragon of the East is coiled in a horseshoe like formation with the White Tiger of the West the greatest amount of cosmic breath is exuded by the Dragon. The other two celestial animals are the Black Turtle of the North and the Red Phoenix of the South. It is ideal to have the landforms in an armchair like conformation: armrests in the form of dragon and tiger hills, a large �back-rest� of the mountain to the back (north), and a small hillock as a footrest at the front (south). As most people now live in cities, the old principles of feng shui are adapted the urban environment. Buildings are likened to the Dragon and Tiger hill formations and roads are viewed as the waterways. THE FOLLOWING SHOULD BE A CHART. IT IS NOT YET FORMATTED.
Table 1.Exclusive Mode Selective Mode Environment is automatically controlled and is predominantly artificial. Environment is controlled by a combination of automatic and manual means and is a variable mixture of natural and artificial.
Shape is compact, seeking to minimize the interaction between exterior and interior environments. Shape is dispersed, seeking to maximize the use of ambient energy.
Orientation is relatively unimportant. Orientation is a crucial factor.
Windows are generally restricted in size. Windows are large on southerly facades and restricted to the north. Solar controls are required to avoid summer overheating.
Energy is primarily from generated sources and is used throughout the year in a relatively constant quantity. Energy is a combination of ambient and generated. The use is variable throughout the year with a peak in the winter and �free-running� in the summer.
Table from Hawkes, p 44.
Architect Ken Yeang has also realized the need for the building to work in response to the environment. He has designed what is called a �tropical skyscraper�. These buildings are designed especially to increase human comfort in hot humid climates (CTBUH, 1995, p.306). The problem to be solved in his native Malaysia was that of overheating. Through the careful use of openness, Yeang allows air to circulate and help cool the building. Thus, Yeang selects certain elements of the environment and incorporates it into his building�s design.
The selective mode of design is also in accordance with author and architect Malcolm Wells� idea of �gentle architecture�. This term encompasses the ideas central in what is also known as green architecture, sustainable architecture and eco-architecture. Wells, through his writing and his architectural designs manages to summarize the need for dwellings which are unobtrusive, use minimum energy, maintain themselves and are beautiful (Wells, 1981, p. 40). Although building orientation is of importance, Wells offers a solution to the homeowner with a north-sloping property. By maximizing window size on the south side of the house, the solar energy and light of the sun can be used. On the north side of the house have smaller, picture-windows. This minimizes heat transfer on this of the house. North views offer brightly lighted scenes that are devoid of the glare from south facing windows. In Building Green, a conference center near Monmouth in Wales is used as an example of a building that needs no energy to heat. This building happens to be earth sheltered, making use of the insulating properties of the soil above. Small amounts of energy are required for lighting and air circulation systems. Earth sheltered buildings blend into the landscape with the roof forming a continuous layer with the ground. Geomorphic Architecture offers several examples of earth-sheltered dwellings. One which deserves attention is the �Dune House� in Atlantic Beach, Florida. From the outside the house is nothing more than a mound in the landscape. The floor plans show the symmetry of the two-storey house. The shape of the house is vaguely like that of a dicotyledon plant embryo. The dune shaped houses help preserve the existing dune ecosystem. The concrete shells are covered with a minimum of twenty-two inches of earth on which grasses and vines are grown. It follows that buildings that are completely underground should benefit from the insulating effects of the earth. Underground space use has a long history, particularly in that of China. For over 4000 years dwellings, storage areas and tombs have been situated below ground. In the 1960�s underground structures were built for the purposes of civil defense. In present day China these structures have been converted for commercial use. Where space is at premium, underground buildings exploit areas previously unused. Existing buildings do not need to be disturbed while there is construction below ground. The cooler air from below ground could be used to cool above ground buildings. The depth of the building from 0 to 10 meters determines the degree of seasonal fluctuation of the indoor temperature (Golany, 1989, p.89). An ideal material for underground buildings is concrete. Concrete is cheap, as well as possessing many desirable qualities. In addition to being pourable concrete is porous, holding moisture acting as an effective stabilizer of room moisture (Wells, 1981, p. 145). Concrete has a considerable thermal mass. With insulation place on the outer surface of the concrete, the mass of the material can be used to store extra heat energy. With all buildings, be it underground, earth-sheltered, above ground or a skyscraper, windows are another area of concern in temperature control. Glass is not an effective insulator nor are the frames in which the panes are housed. In winter is necessary to reduce heat loss and in vice versa in the summer. The design of the window�s size, shape and situation is critical. These factors must be taken into consideration in determining the appropriate window covering. Different types of plants may have different properties, making them more or less suitable as shading devices.
Plant cover is also effective in creating a more pleasant viewing environment. Windows with blas� views of, for example, the brick wall of a neighboring house, can be enhanced with plants. A westward window may let in sha-chi or Tiger energy. This is undesirable and this bad feng shui is often remedied by placing a plant on the window sill. Plants can also be used on the exterior of buildings as windbreaks as shown in figure 7. In this diagram the arrows labeled as wind could easily be interchanged with arrows labeled sha-chi. Similarly a wall of climbing vines on the building exterior creates a small layer of dead space, creating an insulating layer. In many cases plant cover protect the walls from the damaging effects of acid rain and radiation. As with the building itself, the orientation of the green wall is important. South-facing walls absorb and release more moisture than walls facing north. North-facing walls yield a more luxuriant growth of plants (Johnston, p. 56).
The benefits of a green roof are similar to that of a green wall. Green roofs protect the underlying structure of the roof from the elements as well as providing an acoustical barrier. The extreme temperatures of a black roof are greatly reduced with plant cover. Drainage is also controlled with plants. Conventional roofs shed rainwater by the torrents. With a green roof the flow of water is reduced, in turn reducing the amount of water wasted (Wells, 1981, p.24).
The examples so far have dealt with the exterior of the buildings. As it is already established that there is an interaction between the interior and exterior, it is necessary as well to consider building interiors. It is not uncommon for interior designers in Hong Kong or even here in Toronto to practice feng shui. Traditional feng shui consultants should be well versed in Chinese culture and language. They can be called 'feng shui shen sen' which literally means Mr. Feng Shui. They may also be referred to as 'Di-di shen sen', or Mr. Geography, or more accurately, meaning �geomancer�. Feng Shui consulting can be a lucrative business in Hong Kong, with a reputable consultant charging as much as 60 cents per square foot.
The goal of feng shui, whether it be outside or inside is to create a flow of energy. A pleasant room can often be sensed as soon as one enters it. Any number of factors may contribute to this. It may be good furniture placement, soothing colors, interesting decorative pieces, or a combination of any other aesthetic factors.
The number 8 and the eight sided figure - the octagon is considered lucky in Chinese culture. Each side of the Ba-Gua (octagon) corresponds with some form of good fortune (Figure 9). The Ba-Gua is laid over the floor plan of a house or room to determine which sectors corresponds with which fortune. (Refer to Appendix A) Where parts of the floor plan are lacking in an area of the octagon, the missing area can be compensated by extending through the offending wall by mirrors, windows or a landscape painting. Sharp corners and alcoves attract sha. This can be remedied by the strategic placement of plants.
As most rooms are rectangular, the octagon shape can be encouraged by careful placing of the furniture. An office desk for example should be placed so that a person sitting there would have a full view of the door with their back to the corner. Living rooms should be arranged with couches cutting off the corners. Dining rooms with rectangular tables should be arranged diagonally so as to allow the chi to flow more smoothly. The Chinese favor the round table and it is an ideal solution to the dining room problem.
The Ba-Gua is derived from the eight Trigrams found in the I Ching. A Trigram is composed of three parallel, horizontal lines which may be broken or unbroken. As each of the three lines can be either broken or unbroken, there are 8 combinations of Trigrams (23= 8). Each Trigram corresponds with a compass direction and its associated fortune.
The Lo-pan, or geomancer�s compass is a tool used by the feng shui master to align the direction of the house with the astrology of the person living there. The Lo-pan consist of a disc mounted on a square base with a magnetic compass needle to which the South pointing end is marked. The disc is marked with at least sixteen concentric circles, subdivided by radial divisions and lettered appropriately. The Lo-pan is a synthesis of all Chinese theories of cosmic divination, including the Ba-Gua, the five elements and what is known as the Twenty-Four Celestial Constellations.
An accurate feng shui reading that takes in account all the celestial factors requires the services of a feng shui shen sen. That is not to say that feng shui cannot be practiced by anyone wishing to. The fundamentals of feng shui can be understood with simply a little intuition and common sense. There are many resources available written in English or Chinese. Each publication may put different emphasis on the Landscape or Compass practices of feng shui. Whatever solutions are offered, be it hanging a mirror, putting up plants or knocking down a wall, remember to let intuition be you guide! If the placement of the furniture feels good, then it�s probably fine. Feng shui is not an empirical science. Nor is aesthetics. Archetypal psychologist James Hillman suggests that the sense of beauty exists, somewhere between subjectivity and objectivity, as something that is psychologically instinctual. The word aisthesis has the root meaning �I breathe in�. The breath, perhaps of the dragon.
Jungian psychological theory suggest that the human race has a underlying similarity known as the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious recognizes symbols known as archetypes. One such archetype is the tree. The tree can represent the link to the spiritual; the roots grounded, tangible and the crown reaching up to the heavens. A tree can symbolize life, the path of evolution, unity (Schroeder, 1995). An archetype can be experienced a number of ways, depending on the individual (Stevens, 1982, p.34).
Thus, trees and greenery improve the appearance of the concrete jungle by providing a tap to our collective unconscious. In terms of feng shui, the wood element of the trees balance with the metal and earth elements of the urban landscape. The sha which runs along a heavily trafficked street can be filtered by placing trees along the sides. Another solution offered by Richard Hedman is to slow traffic by placing green islands in the street. The islands provide obstacles which the cars get around. The flow of traffic and hence chi is slowed.
A similar effort to slow traffic, and encourage pedestrian use is in motion with the greening of St. George Street. This street is the main thoroughfare of the downtown University of Toronto campus. So far (as of April 1997), the sidewalks have been widened and the street narrowed. Trees have not yet been planted in the planters which line either side of the street.
St. George Street is not the only place of campus which could use improvement. The McLennan Physics Building and Lash Miller Chemistry Building are two buildings that form an imposing fortress of concrete. The space in between the two buildings (figure 11) is devoid of any aesthetic value. It is evident from the benches scattered about, that the space is intended as a courtyard. The front of McLennan Physics (figure 10) is similar in design. The building itself is set apart from St. George Street by a huge expanse of concrete tiling. The abundance of straight lines conduct sha. Like the Chase Manhattan Bank Plaza before the Dubuffet installation, this area lacks a visual focus. A suggestion to improve this area would be to add greenery. Instead of the few patches of concrete contained lawn, a expanse of grass, shrubbery and trees could cover the area. The regular, square tiles could be replaced by octagon shaped interlocking bricks. Benches situated under trees encourage use of the area. The building itself could support a growth of climbing plants. The sha which the straight lines encourage can be dissipated through the use of plants.
The Innis Residence courtyard is a pleasant space used by many on warm sunny days as space to socialize. The area could be further improved with more trees and plants. At present the residents have no way of opening the windows more than a crack. With the proposed greening (see Fig. 13) each resident would have the option of maintaining a garden box at their window sill. Larger trees planted at the edges of the courtyard would maintain a more private, enclosed feeling.
All of these examples move towards a concept of design which is holistic. The terms, sustainable architecture and green architecture are often used with the same intent. The unifying idea behind all theses terms is the understanding of the building not as a solitary unit, but as something which interacts within itself and its surroundings. As with feng shui the underlying concepts emphasize interaction and flow. There are many similarities between feng shui, an ancient Chinese practice, and contemporary ecologically sound architecture.
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