Shannon L. Craig
Seminar in Industrial Psychology Dr. Holly Traver November 19, 1999
As increasing numbers of companies have become multinational, having their operations located in numerous different countries and cultures throughout the world, the need for employees who are able to work effectively and successfully in various cultures has also increased. Black and Mendenhall (1990) state that ��increased internationalization in the economic, political, and social arenas has led to a greater frequency of, and depth in, cross-cultural interactions (contacts between two or more people from different cultural backgrounds). These interactions occur in a variety of work-related situations, including short-term business trips to foreign countries, long-term overseas assignments, and even work in one organization�� (pp. 113-114). It is these long-term overseas assignments on which this literature review will attempt to focus. It will look at characteristics of expatriates and the prevalence of failure, cross-cultural adjustment and related terms, descriptions of successful/unsuccessful expatriates, selection and training processes, and research shortcomings within the field of cross-cultural management.
Why Do Expatriates Exist?
According to Robert Frederick, chairman of the National Foreign Trade Council, 80% of the United States industry now faces international competition (Adler, Doktor, & Redding, 1986). In addition to this fact, Ronen (1989) gives other potential reasons for the increase in international work assignments as being ��increased global competition, rapid transfer of technology, shorter product life cycles, decentralized organizations, advancement in functional areas, and the complexity of overseas duties�� (p. 420).
Who Are These Expatriates?
Tung (1981) investigates four categories of overseas job assignments: chief executive officers, who oversee entire operations; structure reproducers or functional heads, who establish departments in foreign affiliates; trouble shooters; and elements, who are lower-level members of the organization. Most of the individuals sent overseas tend to be between the ages of 30 and 45, due to the level of seniority and expertise generally required for such assignments (Harvey, 1985). There is also a strong tendency to select men over women (only about 3% of expatriate employees are women), which may be due to prejudice, lack of experience, lack of interest, or family issues (Harvey, 1985). Family issues experienced by expatriates will be discussed at a later point in this paper. Some people who are placed in expatriate positions are termed ��fast-trackers�� due to their frequent relocation in an attempt to gain better positions. Such employees face constant uncertainty as to whether they will be moved again and how long they will be in any one place (Harvey, 1985).
Failure
With the increase of overseas work assignments has come an issue of great concern to organizations requiring the utilization of such assignments - the high prevalence of failure among the employees sent overseas. It has been found that 16-40% of all expatriates from the United States fail (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Cleveland, Mangone, & Adams, 1960; Harvey, 1985; Tung, 1981). In addition, it is thought that as many as 50% of those who remain in their assignments function at a low level of effectiveness (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Church (1982) reports, however, that failure (or lack of adjustment) may be in some part affected by nationality. He points out that when the host country is the United States, Canadians and West Europeans report fewer adjustment problems, those from the Far East have the greatest number of adjustment problems, and Indians, Black Africans, Latin Americans, and Middle Easterners fall somewhere in-between.
Failure is a major concern for organizations because its costs are great. In monetary terms for the organization, Ronen (1989) gives an estimate of the expenses incurred by an expatriate during his or her first year abroad as being four times that person��s yearly salary. It is estimated that the cost of one failed expatriate is $50,000 to $150,000, with such costs to U.S. firms totaling over $2 billion a year (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). There may also be undesirable business-related effects on the organization. These can include reduced productivity of the foreign operation, loss of goodwill, damaged corporate reputations, lost business opportunities, and a reduction in effectiveness (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Harvey, 1985; Ronen, 1989). The costs to the employee and his family can also be severe (Ronen, 1989), and frequently result in some kind of compulsive behavior such as overworking, overeating, overmedicating, overthinking, or overdrinking (Dean & Popp, 1990).
Cross-Cultural Adjustment
The general and unfortunately ill-defined term which is used to describe the basis of a successful overseas work assignment is ��cross-cultural adjustment.�� According to Hannigan (1990), cross-cultural adjustment ��can be conceptualized as a psychosocial concept which has to do with the process of achieving harmony between the individual and the environment. Usually this harmony is achieved through changes in the individual��s knowledge, attitudes, and emotions about his or her environment. This culminates with satisfaction, feeling more at home in one��s new environment, improved performance, and increased interaction with host country persons�� (p. 91). Most descriptions of cross-cultural adjustment have included issues of psychological well-being, self-satisfaction, constructive environmental accommodation, cultural readjustment, stages of culture shock, and intercultural interaction (Hawes & Kealey, 1981). Black and Mendenhall (1990) have chosen a definition which describes adjustment as involving ��the gradual development of familiarity, comfort, and proficiency regarding expected behavior and the values and assumptions inherent in the new culture, all of which are different from the individual��s native culture�� (p. 116). They point out that it has frequently been defined in three ways: as the perceived psychological comfort of the expatriate, the amount of culture shock (which is defined below) experienced, and the expatriate��s ability to have positive interactions with members of the host culture. Church (1982) reports that there are stages of adjustment that an expatriate goes through. These include a ��honeymoon�� stage, a second stage characterized by hostility and emotionally stereotyped attitudes toward the host country, a recovery stage accompanied by increased familiarity with the host country, and a fourth stage in which adjustment is complete and the new culture is enjoyed. He also discusses the possibility that these stages can be depicted by a ��U�� curve illustrating the beginning and ending optimistic attitudes with the low level of adjustment in the middle, but points out that this hypothesis is ��weak, inconclusive, and overgeneralized�� (p. 542).
Cross-Cultural Adjustment v. Job Performance v. Intercultural Effectiveness
Some researchers posit that it is important to distinguish between cross-cultural adjustment and effective job performance (Cui & Awa, 1992; Hannigan, 1990). Cui and Awa (1992) indicate that cross-cultural adjustment and effective job performance are correlated to a significant degree, but are not equal. They point out that the requirements and priorities for the two are different. ��For cross-cultural adjustment, the order is as follows: personality traits, interpersonal skills, social interaction, managerial ability, and cultural empathy; for effective job performance, the order is interpersonal skills, cultural empathy, managerial ability, and personality traits�� (p. 324). The term ��intercultural effectiveness�� has been used to indicate the interaction of cross-cultural adjustment and job performance. Numerous researchers have attempted to distinguish different constructs which compose intercultural effectiveness. Characteristics determined to be necessary for intercultural effectiveness include things such as openmindedness, a nonjudgmental and noncritical perspective, proficient language and interpersonal skills, social interaction, cultural empathy, displays of respect, the ability to deal with psychological stress, patience, flexibility, problem-solving abilities, technical skills, and a limited degree of ethnocentrism (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Cui & Awa, 1992; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Gudykunst, Nishida, & Chua, 1987; Hannigan, 1990). Cui and Awa (1992) assert that intercultural effectiveness should distinguish between different dimensions necessary for cross-cultural adjustment and effective job performance. There is also the idea that intercultural effectiveness could be either culture-specific (having different dimensions or requirements for different cultures) or culture-general (having the same dimensions or requirements regardless of culture) (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984). Some researchers have only found evidence for the culture-general interpretation (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984), while others have found evidence supporting both the culture-general and culture specific interpretations (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Dean & Popp, 1990).
Terms
Before continuing with this paper, several other terms which have been mentioned or are frequently used in the literature concerning overseas work assignments should be defined (at least defined as well as possible, considering the lack of agreement on definitions within the available literature). It is probably first important to attempt to define culture. Black and Mendenhall (1990) describe it as consisting of ��patterns of behaviors that are acquired and transmitted by symbols over time, which become generally shared within a group and are communicated to new members of the group in order to serve as a cognitive guide or blueprint for future actions�� (p. 120). Adler et al. (1986) use a similar definition and point out that ��culture influences organizations through societal structures such as laws and political systems and also through the values, attitudes, behavior, goals, and preferences of participants�� (p. 299). Another term is social competence. It is defined as ��the ability to produce the desired effects on others in social situations�� (Muchinsky, 1999, p.191). The phrase ��intercultural sensitivity�� refers to tolerance of other value systems, acceptance of unfamiliar behavior, and empathy to other beliefs and social norms (Ronen, 1989). Adaptation, acculturation, and assimilation all have meanings very similar to adjustment and are used to describe the changes (cognitive, attitudinal, behavioral, and psychological) that result from contact between representatives of different cultures (Hannigan, 1990). Culture shock is a term which has previously been mentioned. It is described as ��a normal process of adaptation to cultural stress involving such symptoms as anxiety, helplessness, irritability, and a longing for a more predictable and gratifying environment�� (Church, 1982, p. 540). Some other terms which are commonly used to describe culture shock are ��culture fatigue,�� ��language shock,�� and ��role shock�� (Church, 1982). Hannigan (1990) points out that one way to alleviate culture shock at least temporarily is for the expatriate to interact with others from his or her home country. ��Cultural toughness�� refers to how novel the new culture is (Black and Mendenhall, 1990). There is also an argument of ��convergence�� versus ��divergence.�� This refers to whether organizations (as considered worldwide) are becoming more similar (convergence) or maintaining there culturally-bound differences (divergence) (Adler et al., 1986).
Description of Successful (and Unsuccessful) Expatriates
While researchers have tended to report on different issues within the topic of overseas work assignments, they all seem to have at least some level of interest in one important issue: the characteristics of a successful expatriate. Inherent in the description of what causes any success is at least some description of what inhibits success.
A list of characteristics various researcher have determined to be important for cross-cultural adjustment and successful overseas work assignments is as follows:
�Y flexibility
�Y sincerity
�Y cultural empathy
�Y understanding of others
�Y communication skills
�Y ability to deal with stress
�Y maintenance of interpersonal relationships
�Y acceptance of different political systems
�Y resourceful
�Y buoyant
�Y environmental mobility
�Y intellectual curiosity
�Y talent for ��building institutions��
�Y inner security
�Y tolerance for ambiguity
�Y respect
�Y commitment to transfer
�Y possession of realistic pre-departure expectations
�Y listening skills
�Y confidence
�Y cognitive skills
�Y language proficiency
�Y previous cross-cultural experience
�Y formation of enclaves of fellow nationals
�Y modernism
�Y sociability
�Y assertiveness
�Y patience
�Y tolerance for uncertainty
�Y problem-solving ability
�Y technical skills
�Y tactful management of conflict
�Y organizational skills
�Y nonjudgmental attitude
�Y sensitivity to discriminate and make choices
�Y persistence
�Y belief in mission
�Y courtesy
�Y willingness for immersion into new culture
�Y competence
�Y maturity
�Y self-esteem
�Y support from spouse
�Y initially favorable reaction to assignment
�Y congruence of personal and organizational expectations
�Y accurate job descriptions
�Y adaptability
�Y proactive approach to learning
�Y ability to learn from mistakes
�Y acceptance of feedback
�Y friendliness
�Y prudence
�Y immaculate health
�Y creativity
This list of characteristics was compiled from various researchers (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Arthur & Bennett, 1995; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Church, 1982; Cleveland et al., 1960; Cui & Awa, 1992; Dean & Popp, 1990; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Gudykunst & Nishida, 1986; Gudykunst et al., 1987; Hannigan, 1990; Harris, 1973; Harvey, 1985; Hawes & Kealey, 1981; Muchinsky, 1999; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997; Stoner, Aram, & Rubin, 1972; Tung, 1981; Wiseman & Abe, 1984). Ronen (1989) also provides a comprehensive list of attributes of success, located in Appendix 1.
Several individual characteristics have been listed, but many researchers have also attempted to categorized the prerequisites for a successful overseas work assignment. The categories proposed by Ronen (1989) are located in Appendix 2. Dean and Popp (1990) discuss categorization by ��effectiveness skills�� and ��coping skills.�� Effectiveness skills aid the expatriate in successfully transferring his or her managerial or technical abilities. Coping skills relate to cross-cultural adjustment and aid the expatriate in feeling comfortable in the new culture. Hawes and Kealey (1981) distinguish between interpersonal orientation, sense of identity, and possession of positive but realistic expectations. Their diagram, which depicts successful cross-cultural adjustment, can be found in Appendix 3. Cui and Awa (1992) present five underlying dimensions of intercultural effectiveness: language and interpersonal skills, social interaction, cultural empathy, personality traits, and managerial ability. Arthur and Bennett (1995) label their five factors job knowledge and motivation, relational skills, flexibility/adaptability, extra-cultural openness, and family situation. As may or may not be obvious, many of these categories overlap so that, in general, the theories encompass similar characteristics but group them under different headings. The individual characteristics located within all of these categories can be found in the list presented above.
Before identifying those characteristics which tend to precipitate unsuccessful overseas work assignments, marital status and previous cross-culture experience will be discussed. The effects of these two characteristics of an expatriate on the success of the assignment have been debated. In considering what they termed ��Family Situation,�� Arthur and Bennett (1995) found it to be the most important factor contributing to the success of the expatriate. They also found that its importance was not influenced by either type of job or type of organization. Harvey (1985) concluded that married expatriates would be more successful, due to an assumed higher level of maturity. Stoner et al. (1972) also found married men to be higher organization contributors than single men, but their results weren��t statistically significant. Cui and Awa (1992), however, found that marital status could hinder adjustment if the family did not relocate along with the expatriate. They also found that while married people adjust better, single people actually perform better on their jobs. Dean and Popp (1990) report that a frequent cause for failure is actually the spouse��s inability to adjust to the new culture. Previous cross-cultural experience is also generally thought to aid in adjustment due to experience in coping with cultural differences (Cui & Awa, 1992). Church (1982) points out, however, that previous cross-cultural experience may inhibit adjustment by reinforcing stereotypes.
Characteristics thought to be associated with unsuccessful overseas work assignments are listed below:
�Y inadequate intercultural interactions
�Y spouse��s inability to adjust
�Y family-related problems
�Y coldness
�Y mistrust
�Y personal insecurity
�Y intolerance
�Y lack of appreciation for differences
�Y immaturity
�Y lack of technical competence
�Y lack of motivation
�Y role ambiguity or conflict
�Y inadequate performance evaluation
�Y repatriation problems
�Y maintenance of stereotypes
�Y anxiety
�Y perceived loss of personal status
�Y ethnocentric attitudes
�Y evaluative or judgmental perceptions
�Y fear of rejection
�Y cultural ignorance
�Y overidentification with host culture
�Y authoritarianism
�Y counseling not available in native language
�Y lack of instruction in nonverbal communication
�Y task-related behavior
�Y self-centered role behaviors
�Y perfectionism
�Y rigidity
�Y dogmatism
�Y narrow-mindedness
�Y chemical dependency
�Y learning disabilities among family members
�Y behavior disorders among family members
�Y family devotion to community activities
�Y attachment to sports and music
�Y marital problems
These characteristics of unsuccessful overseas work assignments are reported by various researchers (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Church, 1982; Dean & Popp, 1990; Hannigan, 1990; Harvey, 1985; Hawes & Kealey, 1981; Ronen, 1989; Tung, 1981).
Selection Processes
Considering all of the above mentioned characteristics that have been found to be associated with the level of success achieved in overseas work assignments, the factor playing the largest role in the selection decision may come as a bit of a shock. The general consensus is that the most frequently used selection criterion is technical competence, or past demonstration of behavior within the home culture (Tung, 1981). Tung (1981) actually found that an overwhelming majority of the firms studied did not assess the relational/interpersonal/communicative abilities of candidates for overseas work assignments. It is suggested that this use of inadequate selection criteria may be one reason for the high failure rate among expatriates (Harvey, 1985).
There are other problems with the selection process as well. One is that companies frequently only give one to two weeks�� notice of selection for relocation, precluding any sort of training program (Harvey, 1985). About half of organizations interview spouses as well as candidates - an encouraging amount that still needs to be raised considerably (Tung, 1981). It is thought that some professions, such as marketing and public relations, are associated with more difficulty adjusting - an issue that is frequently overlooked (Cui & Awa, 1992). Arthur and Bennett (1995) found that certain characteristics were rated as being more important for different organization types (service/business), but not for job type (managerial/nonmanagerial). This suggests that selection should not only be different depending on the job, but also depending on the organization. They conclude that the nature of the task to be performed should be considered in the selection process. Spreitzer et al. (1997) assert that it is important to identify people who are able to learn from their experiences. They validated a selection instrument called Prospector on an international sample of managers. There is a selection process termed the ��contingency approach�� which was developed by Tung (1981) and supported by Arthur and Bennett (1995). Tung (1981) posits that in the selection process three things should be identified: ��variables or factors that are crucial to success or failure on the job, relationships between these different sets of variables, and the weight that should be assigned to each factor in a given situation�� (p. 68). The contingency approach recognizes that no one criterion can be used for all situations. A flow chart of the selection process incorporating the contingency approach can be found in Appendix 4. Thus, in order to reduce costly turnover and to encourage continuous refinement of the organization��s recruitment and selection process it is necessary to determine the potential for an individual to successfully adjust using adaptability screening and a well-developed selection system (Harvey, 1985).
Training
The training of expatriates can be difficult and is often thwarted by lack of support (Arthur & Bennett, 1995) and other problems such as the short notice given to expatriates, mentioned above. Black and Mendenhall (1990) report that only 30 percent of expatriates receive cross-cultural training prior to relocation, similar results were found by Tung (1981). Taking the time and energy to train effectively can have indispensable benefits, however. Cross-cultural training has been found to have positive relationships with both adjustment and performance (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). It is thought that such training will ease adjustment by reducing misunderstandings and inappropriate behaviors, as well as leading to less anxiety and culture shock (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Training can increase confidence and the ability to act effectively, in addition to providing models useful to trainees for examining various behavioral responses and consequences of those responses (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). If accurate predeparture information is given about the host country, the characteristic of flexibility need not be depended on quite as greatly (Hannigan, 1990). Expatriates are also at a severe disadvantage if they do not receive training in nonverbal communication (Hannigan, 1990). Lack of adequate training has been cited as one of the reasons for expatriate failure (Harvey, 1985), a reason which should not exist considering the costs of that failure.
The theory and goals supporting the training may need to be better identified before cross-cultural training can become the norm rather than the exception (Arthur & Bennett, 1995). One issue may be that of who should participate in the training. The literature implies that all expatriates should be involved, but some researchers also suggest that spouses and other family members should participate (Arthur & Bennett, 1995; Muchinsky, 1999). Another issue is that of what should be included in the training. Skills and attitudinal factors can be trained, but personality traits are rarely affected by training (Hannigan, 1990). Foreign language skills and knowledge about the host culture should be developed (Hannigan, 1990). Attitudinal flexibility can be encouraged through training (Tung, 1981). Skills used to deal with psychological stress should also be included in the training (Hannigan, 1990). Dean and Popp (1990) assert that training should focus on developing four abilities: the ability to work effectively with other people, to cope with unfamiliar situations, to expect communication misunderstandings, and to adjust to changes in life styles. Within the training program, realistic goals for achievement should be set (Hannigan, 1990). Training programs designed specifically to be used with people given short notice of their relocation should be utilized ( Tung, 1981). Rigorous training programs are also desirable, as they result in lower failure rates (Tung, 1981), although some researchers have found that the level of training needed is dependent on the amount of interaction required with members of the host culture (Arthur & Bennett, 1995).
Cross-cultural training programs can take on various forms, using different techniques depending on the goal which is to be met. Ronen (1989) provides a summary of these training techniques, which is presented in Appendix 5. Black and Mendenhall (1990) propose the integration of social learning theory and cross-cultural training, arguing that the use of behavior models can facilitate successful adjustment. They point out that the majority of training programs do provide information about the host culture and about the cognitive tendencies of expatriates that cause problems in cross-cultural situations, which allows those people to make cognitive associations to ease their adjustment. Hannigan (1990) suggests training in meditation, yoga, and exercise as methods of dealing with psychological stress. The most commonly mentioned methods of training are lecture, factual briefing, cultural assimilator, role play, field trips, and language development (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Ronen, 1989; Tung, 1981). They are described in somewhat more detail in Appendix 5. Lecture and factual briefings are classified as low rigor (Black & Mendenhall, 1990), while cultural assimilators and field trips are considered to be higher rigor.
Ronen (1989) also mentions some important characteristics of trainers within the cross-cultural training programs. Among these are that ��the trainer should be familiar with the desired behaviors through personal experiences abroad,�Kfeel personally enthusiastic and positive toward new experiences,�K [have] familiarity with cultural differences,�K [and possess] effective interpersonal skills and one-to-one working ability�� (p. 443). Of issue is also the observation that no studies have considered the impact of trainer-trainee similarity in cross-cultural training situations (Black & Mendenhall, 1990).
As has been mentioned, there are several problems with current methods of cross-cultural training. The most serious problem is probably the lack of support for such programs. The reasons that organizations give for not using training programs include the immediate need for appointment, lack of candidates, lack of trainers, smaller population for organized training, lack of long-range planning, lack of awareness of training needs, doubt that expatriates are trainable, lack of research to support training, low contribution of overseas assignments to career paths, exclusive importance of technical skills, and ethnocentrism within corporate headquarters (Arthur & Bennett, 1995; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Ronen, 1989). Other problems are specific to the method used in training. Factual briefings are inadequate for preparing expatriates for extensive contact with members of the host culture and language training may take months or years to master (Tung, 1981). Some assignments also require more rigorous methods of training (chief executive officers and functional heads) than others (trouble shooters and operatives), but organizations have failed to match the assignments with the training methods (Tung, 1981). Black and Mendenhall (1990) also point out that it is difficult to develop training programs through lab studies because the lab environment doesn��t allow sufficient time for the training to be performed. The expatriates being trained also affect the effectiveness of training, as pointed out by Black and Mendenhall (1990). If the trainee has low self-efficacy that individual is less likely to attempt to reproduce that behavior developed in training following relocation to the host culture, while higher levels of motivation and novelty of the training may facilitate greater learning in the training situation. They also conclude that training would probably have the largest impact on expatriates who will be required to have significant amount of interpersonal contact with members of the host culture.
Research Shortcomings
The research concerning overseas work assignments continues to be lacking in many important ways. One such way is that there are very few studies to begin with (Black & Mendenhall, 1990) and the studies that are available tend to have small sample sizes (Cui & Awa, 1992; Dean & Popp, 1990). In addition, the studies have been limited to U.S. expatriates or the U.S. as a host culture (Adler et al., 1986; Arthur & Bennett, 1995; Church, 1982; Spreitzer et al., 1997), or also to characteristics of international students or Peace Corps Volunteers (Hannigan, 1990). The research is also lacking in terms of a clear understanding of factors underlying expatriate job performance, which would aid in the design of selection instruments and training programs (Arthur & Bennett, 1995). The lack of clearly defined terms also makes research difficult (Church, 1982; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Hannigan, 1990), and there has been little attempt to apply the theoretical constructs which have been developed (Church, 1982). Homogeneity of respondents, nonlongitudinal designs, and subjective ratings of measurement also limited generalization of research findings (Church, 1982; Cui & Awa, 1992). Another problem is that inventories or response sets may be culturally bound, therefore preventing true understanding of the measurement device or accurate responses (Adler et al., 1986; Church, 1982). Church (1982) points out that few studies have looked at the effects of physical health on overseas work assignments. It is painfully obvious that many stones have been left unturned in research concerning overseas work assignment.
This paper has attempted to provide a comprehensive review of the literature which is available concerning overseas work assignments. It has considered the demographics of expatriates and the costly prevalence of failure among those expatriates. Cross-cultural adjustment, intercultural effectiveness, and several other related terms were explored. The plethora of characteristics of successful and unsuccessful expatriates which have been identified in the literature were presented. The processes used to select expatriates for overseas work assignments were described and it was pointed out that most selection is based on technical competence, only a small factor within the description of a successful expatriate. Training programs, their various goals and methods, and problems with the implementation of such programs were also discussed. Finally, research shortcomings were identified. The number of overseas work assignments is likely to continue to increase as organizations become increasingly more global. It is very important that the differences between cultures be recognized whenever such organizational decisions are made. The Japanese prefer to deal with general issues before progressing toward more specific ones, while Westerners tend to get the small details out of the way first (Muchinsky, 1999). In addition, when Westerners are considering a problem they tend to use abstract terms such as ��productivity,�� ��morale,�� and ��leadership style,�� while those immersed in Oriental culture will think in more concrete terms, such as ��How can we improve product quality and thus increase export sales?�� (Adler et al., 1986). These are only two examples of how clearly different two cultures may be. It is important that research continue to explore the reasons behind and methods for decreasing the high failure rate of expatriates in overseas work assignments.
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