a. Fundamental relationships
Assuming that contraction is the defining characteristic of physical reality leads to the realization that there exists certain fundamental relationships between the velocity of light, the age of the Universe, and Planck's length and time, and that these relationships are basic to a model of physical reality. This model would be based upon a velocity for light of c which stays constant relative to all inertial reference frames, but which contracts in size, along with the size of all inertial frames, with the passage of time, and upon two fundamental time periods, a minimum one, defined by Planck's time period (P.t.), (approx. 2x10^-43) sec., and a maximum one, (approx.4x10^17 )sec, equal to what I'll call the base age (b.a.) for the Universe, termed base because this may be different from the measured age.
I now hypothesize that the velocity of light, Planck's length (P.l.), and what I'll call the base radius (b.r.) of the Universe (equal to c multiplied by the base age, and again termed base age because this may be different than the measured radius) can be described in terms of their sizes relative to each other, with these sizes remaining constant relative to each other with the passage of time. Using the term (Tp), which I' ll call the age constant, equal to approximately (2x10^17), or one half the base age of the Universe, we can say that the base radius of the Universe, 2(2x10^17)c, equals 2(Tp)c, and that Planck's length, (1.61x10^-33^cm), equals c/(Tp^2Tp^1/2). This then means that Planck's time period is equal to 1/(Tp^2Tp^1/2) sec, and since Planck's time period and the age of the Universe are both defined in terms of Tp, Tp can be used as a basis for describing both periods and frequencies.
Thus we have:
Tp=(2x10^17)sec., where Tp equals the age constant.
Base age of the Universe, b.a. = 2(Tp) sec.
Base radius of the Universe, b.r.= 2(Tp)c
Planck time, P.l.= 1/(Tp^2Tp^1/2) sec.
Planck frequency, P.f. = (Tp^2Tp^1/2)
Planck length, P.l. = c/(Tp^2Tp^1/2) = 1.61x10^-33 cm
I will use these terms to define three basic "realms of action" ; one being space-time, on which gravity acts, another being internal mass structure, where nuclear forces operate, and the third being the realm of the electro-magnetic force. Describing these realms in terms of relative sizes and frequencies reveals a fundamental relationship between the age and size of the Universe and Planck's time period, and gravitational, nuclear and electro-magnetic forces.
b. Photon motion and structure
The contraction hypothesis states that all space and entities within the Universe should be considered to be contracting relative to the overall size of the Universe. For now we can assume that any length within the Universe is contracting at the rate of L/t per second, where L is the length considered and t is the number of seconds (base age) that have past since the beginning of the Universe. This then means that a length equal to the base radius of the Universe contracts at a rate of c. This can be utilized to describe the motion through space, at a rate of c, of a photon (and a theoretical graviton) by simply regarding the motion of a photon to be the result of the photon following the contraction of the space between the position of the photon and a position at a distance equal to the base radius of the Universe in a particular direction.
The contraction of space toward the outer reaches of the Universe as described above can also be described in terms of the contraction in a common direction of a line of fundamentally sized units of space. Planck's length (PL) can be considered to be equal to the length of a fundamental unit of space, and at the present point in time this can be said to be contracting at a rate of approximately PL/2Tp per second, where Tp is defined as the age constant (equal to 1/2 base age). The "center" of a photon will occupy a particular fundamentally sized unit of space. I refer to a photon's center because though later it will be shown that a photon has extended aspects, it will also be shown to have a center toward which it's extended aspects contract. When the total space of the Universe is considered in terms of a group of fundamentally sized spatial units with each contracting as described, each unit will separate from the unit next to it at a rate of Pl/2Tp per second. If however, in a given direction, for a length equal to the radius of the Universe, the edge of each fundamental unit of space is considered to be common with the edge of it's neighbor and each is considered to stay in the same position relative to it's neighbor as each contract, each must then contract in the same direction. Since in this case there are a (2Tp^3Tp^1/2) number of these units (radius/Planck length) lined up next to each other, the result will be that the unit in line which is closest to the point in space that was originally occupied by the photon will shift it's position relative to that point in the direction of contraction at a rate of c. (We can assume that there is always a length equal to base radius (b.r.) between any point that a photon might be located within the Universe and the furthest point from that point, in any direction, this being supported by relativity concepts and addressed in great detail later.) This then can be used to describe the position and motion of a photon or graviton in space relative to a motionless point in space as the space of the Universe contracts, producing a velocity of c for the photon or graviton. The fundamental unit of space at the position relative to which the photon is moving can also be said to be contracting, but with an alternating direction of contraction, alternating every Planck time period. This maintains a constant relative position for this point in space, and this can be considered to represent matter's position relative the photon.
In regards to the structure of a photon, though ultimately the complete picture of a photon will reveal that on a certain level it is spread out in every direction into all the space-time of the Universe, for now it can be said that a photon has a center point and a perimeter point, with this perimeter point located a distance approximately equal to Planck's length from the center point and rotating around the center point. The center point and the perimeter point of a photon can be represented by a rotating vector equal in length to Planck's length, thus equal in length to the fundamental unit of space, rotating with a period equal to Planck's time.
When Planck's time is considered to describe a fundamental time quanta, the perimeter described above by the rotating vector can be considered to represent an expansion-contraction fold, or riff, that exists as a whole unit over the period of one time quanta, equal to Planck's time. This riff can be paralleled to the basic string of string theory. As stated earlier, though, with the contraction approach we discover that there are extended aspects to this riff, or string, and these extended aspects connect each riff to every other riff in the physical Universe. This is explained in detail later.
The origin of the vector described above will move at an average velocity of c, average because there is also an oscillating motion associated with the origin's motion, this oscillation in a +/- direction of the photon's velocity. This oscillating motion is distinct from the rotation of the vector just described, since, as stated, this is an oscillation of the origin of the fundamental rotating vector just described. This oscillation gives the photon the characteristic wavelength and frequency normally associated with it's energy and described by the equation E=hv, where h is Planck's constant and v is the photon's frequency. This description of this oscillation is simplistic in that it is not taking into account the quantum nature of a photon's motion and the fact that the wave associated with the photon or graviton represents probable positions. This aspect of a photon's motion is not yet relevant to this depiction of a photon and is addressed in the section on quantum phenomena.
A photon's energy is determined by it's vector origin's rate of oscillation, with a maximum period of oscillation equal to 2Tp seconds, this for a photon with minimum energy, and with all other possible periods being an eignfrequency of this period. Also, these other periods actually represent a multiple number of fundamental photons, each with an energy of h/2Tp, with the number of photons equaling to the frequency of oscillation.
c. Matter structure and nuclear forces
I now hypothesize that a photon in a matter state follows a unique path as it oscillates, this path defined by a particular relative length, equal to c(1/(TpTp^1/2). It would follow this path, still at a rate of c, alternating direction over a period of 1/(TpTp^1/2) seconds (approximately equal to 1.1x10^-26 seconds), over the length c(1/TpTp^1/2) sec., approximately equal to (3.3x10^-18 meters). The path of a photon in a matter state can then be described by a rotating vector (the matter vector) with a period equal to 1/(TpTp^1/2) seconds and a length equal to c(1/TpTp^1/2) sec. This length contracts at a rate of c/(Tp^2Tp^1/2) per second (this equal to Planck's length per second), since any length contracts at a rate of L/(Tp) per second.
It might seem to some that with a photon wave-particle orbiting around a center point it would be necessary that the photon have a minimum energy so that it's wavelength will be sufficiently short to occupy the orbital path, as is the case for an electron orbiting a nucleus. Here is not the case. Since according to contraction theory all entities are continually contracting with time, the rotating vector contracts, and thus the orbital path doesn't repeat itself but instead spirals toward the origin of the vector. The time period 1/(TpTp^1/2) seconds defines the period in which the extended aspects of a photon in a matter state, which can be considered to be spread out along the path of rotation, are manifested within space-time in a particular fashion. Consequently, the extended nature of the photons still exists, but is now "folded" along the path of oscillation. Thus, if we assume that the extended nature of a free photon extends in every direction to a length equal to the base radius of the Universe, we can say that in the matter state the extended aspect of the photons that comprise a mass particle are "folded" into 2(Tp^2Tp^1/2) units of length c/(TpTp^1/2) each, with each fold contracting at a rate of c/(Tp) per second. This means the sum of the contractions of all the folds add up to c per second, equal to rate that the base radius of the Universe contracts, and also the rate at which the extended nature of a free photon contracts. This "folded over" condition of the photons which defines the matter state will itself have extended aspects, these being manifested in a variety ways, including as gravitons and matter waves.
Earlier when describing the structure of a photon I stated that the origin of the fundamental rotating vector which describes the fundamental photon also oscillates, this oscillation defining the frequency and energy of a photon, though any photon with a frequency higher than the fundamental frequency, 1/2Tp, should actually be considered to be a group of fundamental frequencies, with the group frequency equal to the number of fundamental frequencies multiplied by the fundamental frequency, 1/2Tp. I now propose that the origin of the matter vector I' ve just introduced for matter particles oscillates with a frequency equal to that of the frequency of the matter wave of the system of particles (for example, a nucleus) to which it belongs, this being equal to mc^2/h, and with an amplitude equal to 2c^2/h, which equals 2h/mc. This effectively spreads the "folds" of the matter path over a range equal to the matter wave wavelength, defining the approximate radius of the particle, and, in cases with sufficient mass, the range of nuclear binding forces. With this description, nuclear binding forces are the result of the entanglements of the extended aspects of mass particles. These entanglements produce the binding particles of a nucleus.
d. Electro-magnetic force
Another "realm of action" defined by c and Tp is that of the EMF force; it's approximate range of action being equal to c x 1/Tp, or c/Tp, which equals approximately 1.5 x (Tp^-9)m. EMF forces result from the orientation of contraction and expansion actions within charged particles, this creating an EMF field within the EMF realm of action as defined by c/Tp. This length also corresponds with the de Broglie wavelength associated with the minimum energy level of a bound electron.
We can also relate a variety of frequencies associated with the EMF to the frequency Tp (approx. 2x10^17). The EMF charge quantum unit, e, equal to approximately 1.2 x (10^-19) joules, divided by Planck's constant, equals approximately 2x(10^14), or approximately 1/1000th the value of Tp. The minimum energy of a bound electron (13.6EV) divided by Planck's constant gives a frequency of approximately 2.5 x (10^15), approximately 1/100th the value of Tp. The maximum positive EMF charge in a nucleus, equal to about 100(e), divided by Planck's constant equals approximately 2 x (10^16), approximately 1/10th the value of Tp. This last example, and also the fact that the frequency of an electron's matter wave is approximately 1.2x10^20 supports the conclusion that the frequency Tp (approx. 2x10^17) defines a borderline between EMF forces and the binding forces of matter.
e. Gravity
The description of the contraction of space in terms of the contraction of a group of fundamental units of space, while describing the position of free photons relative to the position of matter in space, can also be used to define the changing positions of light and matter bodies in a gravitational field, thus defining the "realm of action" for gravity. As stated earlier, matter has extended aspects, and one manifestation of these extended aspects is gravity, in the form of gravity waves or gravitons. As general relativity shows, gravity warps space-time. In the contraction approach though, gravity can be considered to be actually an extension of matter, with a fundamental increment of matter being associated with a fundamental increment of gravity, and with these gravitational increments causing fundamental increments of space to expand, contract, and reposition.
With this understanding there is a simple and direct method for describing acceleration due to gravity. Mass can be described in terms of fundamental units, with each fundamental unit of mass equal to h(1/Tp^2Tp^1/2)/c^2. Each of these units produces a certain amount of gravity which causes an increase in the rate of contraction of the space between it and other units of mass. It can be said that the sum of the contracting forces of these fundamental mass units which comprise a mass body warps the space-time that contains the body, as says General Relativity theory, causing mass and energy located in that space-time to accelerate toward the center of the group of mass units. In terms of hypothetical gravitons, it can be said that gravitons cause an imbalance in the expansion and contraction of the fundamental units of space that comprise space-time, this giving the fundamental units a structure which causes mass and energy located in that space to contract toward the position of the fundamental unit with the greatest number of gravitons, this being located the center of the gravitational field. Here is a formula for acceleration due to gravity that is derived with the contraction approach, using the term Tp, and which is equivalent to Newton's gravitational equation:
Acceleration = [2pi(N)(c/(Tp^3))]/[(d/c)(Tp^2), where N=mc^2 /h, h equals Planck's constant, Tp is the age constant (approx. 2x10^17)seconds, and d is the distance between the masses.
Thus, the gravitational constant equals approximately 2(pi)c^5 /(Tp^5)h.
