A.W.N Pugin - Gothic Style Architecture and Decoration
The Industrial Revolution not only brought technological and social changes to western society, but innovative progress in architecture. Many architects and designer's inherited the 'Neo-Classical' spirit introduced during the Age of Enlightenment. With this pattern in motion, nineteenth-century architects looked to the past in the same manner as their predecessors did during the Italian Renaissance. European architecture experienced a resurrection of neo-classical buildings constructed to reflect Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The following is one assessment, "In the opening decades of the nineteenth century, European architecture was learning to live with diversity-and even thrive on it."(1) In England, the style of preference was Gothic. Among the few who initiated this movement, Augustus Welby Pugin, motivated by his passionate Catholic convictions, was the primary figure in English Gothic revival.
Before the discussion of Pugin and the English Gothic revival, one must be informed of some general background. Prior to this period, western civilization experienced significant progress unparalleled in the history of humankind. The eighteenth-century benefitted from economic, social, and intellectual change. These factors helped shape civilization into the beginning of the 'Modern' era. Robin Winks wrote, "The Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the abortive revolutions of the following decades had secularized the old millennial beliefs of humankind."(2) Winks goes on to say that the notion of 'God and the Kingdom of Earth' and its intangible passage to Eternity was replaced during the Enlightenment. What occurred was the constant fusion of material progress which made life 'better' and comfortable. Meliorism, which is the belief that the world may be improved by human effort, gave a dynamic quality to nationalism, imperialism, socialism, and communism.(3) All these spheres of social and political change influenced architecture in Europe. To illustrate their grandeur, the emperors of imperial Rome had left grand civic buildings which symbolized the greatness of the Roman Empire and their rule. In the nineteenth-century, Napoleon Bonaparte initiated the design of Paris to reflect the grandeur of Rome. Across the English Channel, England was to have its own agenda as liberalism and the Industrial Revolution had their impact on England's social classes.
The growth of liberalism occurred, in part, as a reaction to the conservative policies adopted by frightened governments anxious to restore domestic and international order following the Napoleonic wars.(4) The result was European governments and the rise of the middle class succeeded and were determined to halt the revolutions. Liberalism, by design, avoided influence from the Christian sects of society. Pugin would later offset this doctrine as will be discussed later. Besides impelling expansion of liberalism, the Industrial Revolution brought the world to unprecedented heights in technology.
The Industrial Revolution started in Britain during the latter part of the explosive 18th-century. British architecture reflected changes that society implemented. As Europe's population increased and the emergence of the new social order, new buildings of all types were needed to supplement all types of functions. For example, civic, office, hotel, factories, museums, and churches all were in demand all across Europe and the New World. York University professor Patrick Nuttgens writes, " At the same time technology, materials, and services required to answer these demands were available, and the systematized use of them literally changed the face of functional architecture."(5) One example of this is the introduction of engineering used in design and construction of buildings by careful mathematical calculations.
Even though the industrial movement spread, architects were reluctant to take advantage of the new technology. This was one significant reason why the work of Pugin and other proponents of Gothic revivalism succeeded. Prior to this, designers and architects stayed within the confines of building standards introduced in the 18th-century. There are several reasons why architects were slow to jump into the 19th-century. Perhaps the most significant was that architects of the 18th-century worked for years to achieve status in society.(6) As a result, they accomplished many feats and were responsible for a whole set of design rules that were utilized universally. In ancient civilization, the Greeks of Antiquity created precision utilizing symmetry and geometrical design in the construction of the great temples. The Romans followed suit by mastering engineering and curvlinear design seen in arches, aqueducts, theaters, and other 'civic' architecture. The classicism of 18th-century architecture expanded the models of Antiquity into an innovative array of design principles. These guidelines of architecture sometimes were referred to as 'ordered, rational, and grandiose.' Consequently, architects were not ready to break with this tradition. Economically, industrial capitalism was contingent on the progress of liberalism. Additional forces within society supplemented the drive to adhere to traditional architectural forms as a by product of the continuity in the changing world. For most established architects, change meant venturing into untested domains. Politically, civic architecture represented the ruling governments as seen in Napoleon's France, as well as other emerging nations such as America and Britain. The essence of this architecture was to symbolize the relationship to democratic Rome or imperial Athens. These factors contributed to the barrier that separated the 18th and 19th-centuries. On the other hand, architects could no longer remain closed-minded to the innovations of technology. Once the breakthrough was established, the passion that grabbed Pugin and others of the Gothic revival enabled architecture to enter a new realm.
With this background up to the time of Pugin, a major development enabled Gothic revival to expand. Along with the other movements of this time period, Romanticism became the motivating force behind creative explorations. In Western Civilization Ideas, Politics & Society, the authors define Romanticism and how it contrasted the principles of the Enlightenment. The contrast became the transition from the 18th to the 19th-centuries ascending from a period of revolutions.
The postrevolutionary period also saw a new cultural orientation. Romanticism, with its plea for the liberation of human emotions and the free expression of personality, challenged the Enlightenment stress on rationalism. Although primarily a literary and artistic movement, Romanticism also permeated philosophy and political thought . . . .the Romantic movement, which began in the closing decades of the 18th-century, dominated European cultural life in the first half of the nineteenth-
century. (7)
Despite the great progress of the Enlightenment, the participants of the new post-revolutionary period felt that reason and rationality placed too many limits on the capabilities of human expression. In literary works, writers such Goethe who wrote Faust, introduced the notion of romantic expression by using romance from old legends and an emphasis on nature. One important element here is the importance of the past and the preference of nature as opposed to materialistic ambitions.
Perhaps the central message of the Romantics was the imagination of the individual should determine the form and content of an artistic creation. This outlook ran counter to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, which itself had been a reaction against otherworldly Christian orientation of the Middle Ages.(8)
The irony of the last point became part of Pugin's legacy as a result of his passion and loyalty to the Catholic church. It could be argued that Pugin possessed a high degree of the Romantic spirit. Architects, writers, artists, and many other people became fascinated with the mythic past. Many of the elite wanted designers to construct sham castles alluding to Arthurian legend. The work of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein gripped reader's imaginations and thus attracted some to examine the aura of gothic. "During the Romantic movement, European culture underwent a profound change in terms of its relationship to the past, and northern European countries the past was signified by Gothic architecture."(9)
In England, literary influences helped shape interest in the mysticism of gothic. The famed writer Horace Walpole was recognized as the one who inspired the gothic pursuit. He wrote Anecdotes of Painting,in which he touched upon on Gothic. His aim was not necessarily to explore Gothic buildings architecturally, but to study them archaeologically. He was concerned with the pointed arch and with the men who designed such structures. In practice, the pointed arch served a structural purpose as it transmitted the enormous loads along the walls of a church toward the ground, Aesthetically, the arches appealed to the viewer and offered patterns of continuity on the vertical planes of the church. Walpole adored the superstitious elements of Gothic. His ideas were not shared by many at the end of the 18th-century. It was not until fifty years after he wrote Anecdotes of Painting that his work became accepted.
Walpole's discoveries then became important to English architects. Enlightened thinkers looked at Gothic as surreal and full of horror and mystery. Walpole stressed that Gothic should be viewed as a serious look at the Middle Ages for its arts and manners which would later become part of the foundation for Pugin's principles. Hence, it is not Walpole's "Gothic Romance that is important to us, it is his Gothic castle."(10) In other words, the English Gothic revival was based on the end product rather than its mystical allusions.
A.W.N. Pugin had a very interesting background as he worked to become an architect. His father was an important designer in England during the infancy of the Romantic Movement. Augustus Charles Pugin was an authority on medieval architecture , a publisher of and a dealer in books on architecture and the arts, and an architectural illustrator. A.W.N would inherit some of his father's fundamental qualities. In the 1790's, the elder Pugin acquired a reputation for "skill, talent, precision in draughtsmanship, and for sensitivity to the elements of scenery, which were to provide him with a life-work and his family with its livelihood." These qualities the younger Pugin would expand on as he progressed in his illustrious career.
His father married an Englishwoman named Catherine Welby when he was fifty. A.W.N. Pugin was their only child. The Pugin family were associated with a special school which trained young men to become architectural illustrators and architects. The family would travel with the students to France or into the field in England to measure buildings and draw them. The elder Pugin collected a series of these architectural plates and composed them into a book he titled Examples of Gothic Architecture. The elder Pugin died in 1832, and in 1835, A.W.N. Pugin continued where his father left off to complete the work. This enabled Pugin to exhibit his skills and solidify his personal aspirations as an architect. In the process, he began to establish his own reputation among his contemporaries and his father's colleagues. As a result, Pugin took a path into his career quite different from his peers. Traditionally, young aspiring architects have to successfully complete several years of academic training. They must also demonstrate the ability to design, problem solve, and draw plans and architectural details. Most importantly, most young architects had to work under senior members of the profession before they attained independence. In short, Pugin was spared this phase of development.
He went, instead, directly from his father's classroom into the independent pursuit of a career, first as an illustrator of medieval buildings and a designer in the decorative arts, and thence into the practice of architectural design.(12) To make an informative point, one should learn a broader definition to the role of the architect. 20th-century and famous Swiss architect Le Corbusier defined the role in his book Towards a New Architecture. Corbusier's definition closely resembles the attitude Pugin would later build upon in the pursuit of architectural truth. Architecture was not just a product of a function, but an energy force involving intangible components which are part of a greater whole.
The Architect, by his arrangement of forms, realizes an order which is a pure creation of his spirit; by forms and shapes he affects our senses to an acute degree, and provoking plastic emotions; by the relationships which he creates he wakes in us profound echoes, he gives us the measure of an order which we feel to be in accordance with that of our world, he determines the various movements of our heart and of our understanding; it is then that we experience the sense of beauty.(13)
Le Corbusier was not immune to wordiness in expressing his points; however, this definition summed up the primary goals of architects. One can see echoes of the elements of Romanticism. For example, the 'sense of beauty' is emphasized in contrast to ordered, rational, and grand architecture of the 18th-century. Pugin would take these insights as he became passionate in his work, which elevated his status throughout his career.
A few years after his father's death, he began to pursue many activities and commenced his professional career. In 1835 and 1836 he built his first building, gained clients, and continued his studies. During this process, he gained more knowledge about medieval art as he traveled throughout England and the rest of western Europe. When he settled back in England in 1835, Pugin selected a piece of land near Salisbury because of its natural beauty. Pugin remarked about this location that it offered,"a magnificent view of the cathedral and city with the river Avon winding through the beautiful valley . . . . I have as advantageous a situation as any in England."(14) At this time of his early career, he was building a house for his family and his second wife Louisa whom he married in 1833. They had one child, Edward Welby Pugin who was born March 11, 1834. Pugin also had a daughter, named Anne, who had been born a few years earlier. Anne was born to Pugin's first wife Anne Garnet, who had died one week after giving birth in 1832.
Pugin built the house and was motivated by a high degree of enthusiasm and optimism. He called the house St. Marie's Grange and claimed that the architecture would become "the only modern building that is compleat in every part in the antient style."(15) What he meant by his statement about the Grange is that the building reflected truth and beauty in its style. By his careful study of medieval architecture, he made the Grange similar to those built during the middle ages. In order to achieve this, he took no shortcuts or improvised so as to not disrupt the final product. The Grange was an authentic work of architecture and served as the cornerstone for the rest of Pugin's architecture that would eventually become the primary legacy to Gothic revival in England.
In 1835, Pugin experienced a turning point in his life in which he had to make some very important decisions. With his career looking promising, his wife became ill and he experienced a disease of the eyes that would burden him until he died. In November of that year, he was preparing for an important architectural competition. He became blind, but this condition lasted only a few days. He also became very assertive in his religious views; he had made his adherence to the Catholic church made public a year earlier. In 1834, he noted to friends his discontent toward the English Church, exclaiming about the horror and apathy displayed by the Protestant clergy:
I assure you, he wrote, that after a close and impartial investigation, I feel perfectly convinced the Roman Catholic Church is the only true one, and the only in which the grand and sublime style of architecture can be restored. A very good chapel is now building in the north, and when it is complete I certainly think I shall recant.(16)
In 1835, Pugin recanted and this became the most important event to influence Pugin; it dictated his motivation for the rest of his life.
At the time of his recantation, many in England detested the Catholic Church and labeled it an institution shielded by the machinery of the old Inquisition. Roman Catholics at the time worshipped in makeshift rooms hidden in obscure locations. Pugin, aware of this, sacrificed employment for his conversion. Nevertheless, this did not stir Pugin from his work. Fortunately, the Act of Catholic Emancipation led to the demand for new Catholic churches and the most important of these were given to Pugin.
Pugin's later career would later be broken down into three phrases. The first of which started after Pugin had his essays called Contrasts published. These gained him fame among his contemporaries and peers. At this time, the Romantic movement was becoming a major force which impacted English society. Despite the great technological advances brought forth by the Industrial Revolution, the side-effects resulted in negative realities. The destruction of the agrarian economy witnessed the creation of growing, dirty, ugly, industrial cities with slums which became home to exploited workers. This fact of life caused for many to wish to 'escape' from this world to a more distant time. Pugin's brand of architecture made the remnants of Gothic come alive during this time of change. In Contrasts, he made it a point, in an eccentric manner, to show a series of satirical drawings of an English town as it looked during the Middle Ages and what that city had become in the 1830's. Professor of architecture David A. Hanser wrote,
The Medieval cities were beautiful, the people happy and healthy; the modern cities were ugly and polluted, the people starving and miserable. His point was that industrialization had destroyed society, that machine production in factories intrinsically reduced men to machines, destroying their pride and individuality in the process. Men should return to the Medieval handicraft practices. The poor aesthetic quality of machine-made products destroyed the tastes and morals of the people who bought them as much as of the men and women who produced them.(17)
This new way of thinking became a refreshing notion in the approach to the arts and a counter-revolutionary reaction to industrialization. Pugin initially led the Gothic revival, and over the next few years, momentum occurred in English design and architecture. As Pugin established a strong relationship with the architectural community, many of the high-ranking Catholic officials in England took notice of Pugin's views. Pugin achieved a foundation for his future success.
Pugin's first major architectural commission was given to him by Charles Scarisbrick, a wealthy Catholic bachelor who inherited Scarisbrick Hall in Lancashire from his brother. Although not a huge project, Pugin made a series of drawings which included several additions, namely, a fireplace and a garden pavilion. It has been suggested that this commission had been referred by another architect too busy for Scarisbrick to Pugin to complete. Interestingly, Pugin's involvement on the Scarisbrick project was well documented in England. "Volumes of drawings for the house are now in the collections of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and every sheet Pugin prepared seems to have been reverently preserved."(18) It was evident Pugin wanted his drawings preserved and the English architectural community held a high regard for the Scarisbrick project. The Scarisbrick renovations reveal the excellence in Pugin's work and the impact in English architecture which began to unfold in the 1830's. The specifications for Scarisbrick strictly were for additions and renovations without changing the character of the house. Beginning in 1837, Pugin began his series of proposals and continued them until 1847. Scarisbrick was the single most largest domestic project of his career and representative of his early years. The following show an exterior perspective of the left wing, a floor plan of the proposed additions, and an elaborate drawing of the fireplace in the south room. The latter was drawn in ink while the other two were done in pencil.
Scarrisbrick
These renovations were significant because Pugin was allowed to propose whatever he desired for his wealthy client. His ideas expressed in his drawings revealed the truth in architectural terms illuminating the eye in realistic fashion. The fireplace, for example, was finely detailed and elaborate communicated a sense of pleasure by using architectural shapes in a decorative style. It was felt by those who saw Pugin's designs that the drawings came to life before and after construction. Thus, a remarkable finished product became a fulfillment to a dream. Perhaps the most spectacular edition to Scarisbrick's mansion was the interior corridor from the lobby to the staircase. With a difficult problem to solve due to the initial layout of the multi-storied section, Pugin had to distribute space into rooms and provide east, west and north, and south corridor access on the two floors of his new wing. The problem Pugin faced involved the spatial considerations and the proper distribution of daylight into the interior spaces. The use of natural light is extremely important in architectural design. To examine this point further, modern architect Le Corbusier wrote,
Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light. Our eyes are made to see forms in light . . . . the image of these is distinct and tangible within us and without ambiguity. It is for that reason that these are beautiful forms, the most beautiful forms.(19)
What is universally known about Le Corbusier's statement is that the interior space of a building is successful contingent on the arrangement and manipulation of elements in that space. Design and spatial examination are required for this principle. Pugin's solution became an inventive exhibition of his problem-solving skills. He lighted the east to west corridor with skylights, and by the minor alteration of making the first story corridor floor half the width of the one below. He developed spaces along the wall passages through which light could be distributed to the lower corridor.(20)
Upon completion of his work on Scarisbrick, Pugin might have become a successful independent architect. He might have even secured his position among the aristocratic factions. However, Pugin's religious preoccupations and personal views directed him to expend his talents and energies into other directions.
" The cause of Rome was enjoying fair weather in England since the Catholic Emancipation Act. This phenomenon became knotted to the Gothic revival the fiery propaganda of one man, an architect named Augustus Welby Pugin."(21) Pugin had solidified his position where his architectural and religious convictions became a united principle. Many of his peers at the time were still amazed at Pugin's conversion let alone, his pursuits as a church-building architect. As mentioned earlier, his solid belief that the Catholic Church represented the only true form of religion and the only sublime architecture that could be restored while maintaining its integrity. Pugin's revolutionary style of building rich, elaborately furnished churches eventually became widely accepted. On the other hand, critics such as the future Cardinal Newman proclaimed that, "the whole Gothic revival was a form of escapism and the building of cathedrals when the church had not the bishops to staff them was 'Puginism.'"(22)
Newman represented those who became adversaries of Pugin and called Pugin the head of Gothic or 'English' party in the Catholic Church of England. Nevertheless, criticism seemed to strengthen his resolve and fuel his efforts in Church architecture. Pugin identified himself with the lay Catholic leader and grand seigneur John Talbot, the sixteenth Earl of Shrewsbury whose seat was the Alton Towers. Pugin had been successful at drawing the attention of men such as Talbot, but more importantly, he began to gain followers among the students and lay people.
Pugin made it a goal to convert the mission clergy and the students in the seminaries to his views and principles. As for the rest of the general population, he propagandized through his books which showed his artistic skill in his illustrations. Pugin firmly believed that the Gothic style was a historical, moral, and religious necessity, especially for English Catholics who claimed descent from the church of the Middle Ages. The work in Contrasts had helped to inform the masses. By 1843, he dedicated an overview to his patron the Earl of Shrewsbury called the Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture. Among the many topics covered in the apology, was the assertion that the Gothic revival was not a facade or phase in English architecture. The movement became the driving force inspired by the changing condition of the English state and the rise of religious fervor.
It has been concluded that "Pugin's architecture possessed a strong common personality. Verticality is its most immediately striking individual quality . . . . Gothic is a style which often (not always) aspires to height and vertical accent."(23) He would go on to say that England was paramount in the expression of Gothic revival. Part of this was the emphasis on aesthetics and verticality which was predominant during the Middle Ages, and in 19th-century England, 'was truest in its Decorated phase.' During the Gothic period of the Middle Ages, architecture was characterized by its monumentalism and vertical design to 'reach toward the heavens.' Pugin noted this in his Apology.
" He abuses the 'pedimented and telescopic steeples' of classicism, which he defines as a 'horizontal architecture' incapable of the noble height exemplified by Gothic spires and that all towers and spires."(24) He argued that all towers should be crowned with spires and that medieval towers without them were merely unfinished canopies and font covers. He went on to state that the high pitched roofs of Gothic added great ornate beauty whereas low pitched roofs and flattened arches 'marked the departure of the vertical principle.'(25) Verticality was an important facet of the Gothic style and Pugin made sure not to break this tradition.
By this middle phase of his career, Pugin had established himself as the innovator of Gothic revival. One of his most remarkable works for the Earl of Shrewsbury was the St. Giles church, completed in 1846. Built at an enormous cost, the church reveals Pugin's highly proclaimed "integrated style."
In architectural terms, it is a dramatic and impressive building, with a soaring spire that dominates the landscape for miles around, establishing nineteenth- century Gothic as a powerful and highly original style that had grown naturally out of its medieval roots.(26)
Although the exterior is not as spectacular as the interior, it offers a slight dualistic appearance on the exterior to make one wonder as to the content of the interior. As the picture illustrates, the interior reveals its Gothic legacy by its carefully detailed design. St. Giles was unprecedented because the interior space was illuminated by rich colors, patterns, textures and controlled ornament. All of these components of design were vital to the integrity of the building. The church clearly shows Pugin's mastering of the medieval design process juxtaposed with modern Gothic. In contrast to medieval materials, namely stone, St. Giles was composed of woodwork, metalwork, stained glass, textiles, tiles on walls and floors, sculpture, carving, and wall painting, all products of the nineteenth-century and all combined to a definitive effect. The greatest intangible for an architect of Pugin's caliber was the freedom to create and implement whatever he desired without limits. Similar to Scarsbrick, Pugin was able to fulfil his dream and express his architectural inclination to an extraordinary level. St. Giles became a legacy in its own right. "As a result, the church dominates an English market town (Cheadle) as no other Catholic church does."(27) Pugin credited his accomplishment to his travels and other studies for the inspiration of St. Giles. He wrote,
I am half frantic with delight, I have seen such churches with the painting and guilding near perfect!!!! Such screens, exquisite painting. I shall have glorious authorities for Cheadle. I am delighted beyond measure to have seen than before we begin decoration at Cheadle.(28)
At this point of his career, there was little doubt the Pugin legacy flourished as his passion for truth and careful attention to detail contributed to English architecture. These examples demonstrate the spectrum and innovations of Pugin's influence upon High Victorian design. Fifty years after St. Giles, the principles in architecture and the applied arts were to initiate the whole Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain and America. As touched upon earlier regarding the truth in design practice,"Pugin's principles of honest construction and truth to materials imbued the arts and crafts objects.�(29) Le Corbusier was not the only modern architect to echo these sentiments in modern design.
No essay could conclude without mentioning one of Pugin�s contributions toward the end of his career, his final phase. The Houses of Parliament, shown below, exhibited the sensationalism of Gothic detail. The rich Gothic skyline of the towers and the pinnacles, combined with the river Thames in the foreground, shows the blend of Gothic and Classical architecture that architect Charles Barry contemplated. Thus, he chose Pugin as his Gothic collaborator.
The building established Gothic as the national style by the middle of the century. One critic noted that if Barry�s Houses of Parliament symbolize the recognition of the Gothic Revival as the national style, the work of Pugin symbolizes its recognition as the Christian style.(30) Much of the credit remains with Barry, but the clarity of Pugin�s work within the Parliament building possessed originality and individuality. Pugin�s primary concern was that of the woodworking and ornamental design.
Perhaps the most successful of all the sections left to Pugin was the ceiling of the House of Lords. The ceiling was divided into compartments surrounded by a pierced frieze with repeated coffers in a rhythmic pattern. This theme, expanded by Pugin, left its legacy throughout the Houses of Parliament. The perfect balance between structure and ornament had become instinctive to Pugin in an extraordinary way which complemented Barry�s careful proportions.(31) Like many other buildings of the English Gothic revival, �the splendid results remain.�
One fact was for certain. In Pugin�s world, to cut the bonds of architectural principle and religious conviction was like disconnecting the heart from the mind. His work detailed his legacy in a way to reflect the past to improve the religious and social condition of the time. In simplistic terms, Pugin made clear in an age of great change the important relationship between architectural design and the state of a society. As Le Corbusier would expand on decades later, architecture is important in its revelation and commitment to the truths in design which directly reflect the moral condition of a society whether a city or nation.(32) The English strove to achieve these ends from a troubled state at the beginning of the 19th-century. A.W.N. Pugin became the most important figure to revive a sacred institution of western civilization (Gothic architecture) and display it in building and design. As a result, England received some of the finest works of architecture. Architects after Pugin inherited a set of principles to expand in their own generations.
Augustus Welby Pugin died after he became ill in February of 1852. He died on September 14 and was buried in his own church in the family vault. He became very sad in the end, but evidently did not realize the magnitude of his work. He wrote to his friend and colleague John Hardman,
My writings, much more than I have been able to do, have revolutionized the taste of England. My cause as an architect is run out . . . . Still I almost sigh for old simplicity when I thought all the old cathedral men fine fellows. It is all a delusion. Everything is deception and unreal vanity and vexation of spirit. I shall turn anchorite at last, with a companion. A new order, a development of hermit.(33)
He may not have understood the implications of his ideas or his work in the end, but the outcome in such matters is never revealed until future generations revive that portion of history.
Endnotes
1. Spiro Kostoff, A History of Architecture Settings and Rituals, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 571.
2. Robin Winks, Western Civilization: A Brief History, (Alta Loma, California: Collegiate Publishing Company, 1988), 303.
3. Winks, 303.
4. Robert E. Lerner, Western Civilizations Their History and Their Culture: Volume II, (New York: W.W. Norton and Company Inc., 1988, 784.
5. Patrick Nuttgens, The Pocket Guide to Architecture, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980), 148.
6. Bill Risebero, The Story of Western Architecture, (London: Herbert Press, 1979), 166.
9. Paul Atterbury ed., A.W.N. Pugin Master of Gothic Revival, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), 13.
10. Kenneth Clark, The Gothic Revival, (London: Constable and Company Ltd., 1950), 59.
11. Phoebe Stanton, Pugin, (New York: Viking Press, 1971), 13.
12. Stanton, 14.
13. Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, (London: Dover Publications Inc., 1986), 12.
14. A.W.N. Pugin, Contrasts, or Parallel between the Noble Edifaces of the Middle Ages and Corresponding Buildings Showing the Present Decay of Taste, (London: reprint, Dover Publications, 1987), 128.
15. Pugin, 146.
16. Clark, 169.
17. David A. Hanser, Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas Architecture & Society, (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1984), 83-4.
18. Stanton, 28.
19. Corbusier, 29.
20. Stanton, 32-3.
21. Kostoff, 589.
22. John Henry Newman, The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman, (London: C.S. Dessain, 1961), 212.
23. Atterbury, 91.
24. A.W.N. Pugin, An Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture, (London: 1843), 26.
25. Atterbury, 92.
26. Atterbury, 192.
27. Atterbury, 76.
28. A.W.N. Pugin, Letter: Pugin to Shrewsbury, (Wedgwood: 25 April, 1844) no. 38, 108.
29. Paul Atterbury and Clive Wainwright, Pugin a Gothic Passion, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 19.
30. R. Furneaux Jordan, A Concise History of Western Architecture, (Toledo, Spain: Thames and Hudson Limited, 1990), 291.
