| Within Judaism there are different points of view on the same moral issues. The same can be said of Buddhism. I will try to explain that these differences of opinion within the same tradition are due to a number of factors. In answering the above question I will discuss the points of reference from which moral decision making begins as these play a major part in the decision making process and will try to explain the process itself as well as giving some examples of different opinions on the same moral issues.
According to Orthodox Judaism, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, called the Pentateuch or Torah, were revealed by God to Moses at Mount Sinai and contain His eternal1 commandments (mitzvah) both to mankind in general and to the Jewish people in particular2. This is, therefore, the first and most important point of reference for determining the Orthodox position on issues of morality. Apart from the written Torah, Jews also believe that God revealed to mankind an oral Torah and that this was passed down through the generations until the second century A. D. when it was finally written down. The written form of the oral Torah, known as the Mishnah, provides an explanation and commentary to the written Torah. The Mishnah was also commented on in the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds6 which were themselves codified in the Middle Ages7. Along with the written Torah, Orthodox Jews view the Mishnah and Talmuds, along with the Halakhah, as additional sources of reference from which moral judgements are based. Having said this, Herbert makes the important point that for Orthodox Jews, morality and the rabbinic law (Halakhah), which is itself derived from the Torah, is very closely intertwined3. Thus, I would suggest that this (the Halakhah), rather than the Torah itself, marks the starting point of reference from which moral decision making begins for many Orthodox Jews. Otherwise, it is surely utilised as a safeguard to ensure that they have not misunderstood the original (Torah) source. On the other hand, non-Orthodox Jews maintain first of all that the whole Pentateuch was not in fact delivered at Mount Sinai to Moses but that it was delivered piece by piece to a number of people and secondly that God has continued and continues to reveal himself to mankind, and not just to the Jewish people4. This being so, �Liberal� and �Reform Jews�, two branches of non-Orthodox Judaism, do not view the mitzvah of the Pentateuch to be the absolute and binding divine commandments that necessarily apply today. Instead, they place greater emphasis on the individual�s freedom to choose based on his/her personal conscience5 although presumably this would still be influenced by the mitzvah of the Pentateuch. Spanning for nearly 2,500 years, Buddhism has had a wide variety of teachings and practices. First of all, Buddhism can be divided into two main branches: Theravada8 and Mahayana9 Buddhism. Secondly, it is also separable into three general geographical areas: �Southern�, �Northern� and �Eastern� Buddhism10. Although there also exists a wide range of different schools of thought within each of these three regions11, there are three main source texts corresponding to the three areas12. Harvey lists these as the Pali (Southern), Chinese (Eastern), and Tibetan (Northern) cannons13. Derived from the early oral transmissions of the Buddha�s teachings, the Pali14 canon, called Tipitaka, consists of the Vinaya-Pitaka (monastic discipline), the Sutta-pittka (discourses) and the Abhidhamma-pitaka (further teaching)15. The Chinese canon, called Ta�ts�ang-ching, is basically a translation of the Pali canon with some modifications and additions16. The Tibetan cannon, completed in the fourteenth century, consists of the bKa�gyur (translation of the word of the Buddha) and the bStan �gyur (translation of treatises). The various collections of jataka tales17 also provide very important source texts for Buddhist ethics. For example, the Buddhist tradition of caring for animals is supported by jataka story no. 124 in which the Bodhisatta (a being who aims to achieve enlightenment) brings water to some wild animals during a drought instead of gathering food for himself. Later on, the animals bring back food for Bodhisatta18. Thus, the textual sources from which Buddhists gain their guidance on issues of morality are also extremely wide and varied. In practice, however, the monasteries have provided a simplified resource for guidance on issues of morality for both its monks and for the local community19. Each monastery has its own list of rules, called patimokkha (Sanskrit: pratimoksa), based on the Vinaya-Pitaka, which includes a set of rules (the �five precepts�), called panca-sila, for the laity to use as moral and ritual guidance20. In Judaism, moral decisions may be reached individually, through personal study and reasoning, or more reliably by consulting a rabbi22 whose knowledge of the Torah and its interpretation would normally elevate him/her into the position of moral guide23. Towards the end of the second temple period, religious authority and the responsibility of Torah interpretation passed from the priests to the scribes (law makers) and later from them to the rabbis24. However, I would add to this that ethical teaching is primarily passed on from the parents to their children through instruction25 and good practice and that the community and its leaders play a similar role. Liberal and Reform Jews also recognise and at least consider the wisdom found in other cultures, for example in Greek philosophy as insightful or having a part to play in influencing personal opinion on morality. Solomon states that as opposed to the Christian process of formulating a moral judgement which generally has as its starting point a general observation and ends in a specific exhortation, the Jewish process tends to reverse this process beginning with a specific rule and concluding with general observations21. He also states that Jews are encouraged to go further than what is expected of them by law26. This is a particular and important form of morality in Judaism known as lifnim mishurat hadin. For example, under certain circumstances it may be considered more desirable and charitable for a Jew to forego what is owed to him/her especially if the debter is enduring financial hardship. Furthermore, although the rabbis have set out precisely the details of alms-giving, for instance the amount and how often it should be paid etc, there still remains the opportunity for a Jew to exceed what is expected of him/her. According to the rabbinic reading of the scriptures, moral decisions are reached through man�s exercising his own free-will27. This was the expressed view of Maimonides28. Later on, however, the Kabbalists and popular Judaism embraced the belief in a type of astrological determinism29. The Mishnah attempts to reconcile the two views by drawing attention to God�s foreknowledge although still stressing man�s unrestricted freedom to choose between right and wrong actions30. Others, for example Cresques, believed that man�s freewill was real but restricted and still others, perhaps influenced by Muslim philosophy, tried to argue the case for a simultaneous existence of man�s freewill alongside a strict determinism31. In Buddhism, an individual�s present state of well-being is determined by his/her past actions, or kamma. However, these past actions do not determine future ones. Buddhists maintain that their ability to choose to make good (�skilful�) or bad (�unskilful�) moral decisions is ultimately unrestricted although influenced by their present state of well-being and to some extent their character which are determined by kamma but that this can be overruled by man�s free-will32. The process by which moral decisions are arrived at in Buddhism depends largely upon the degree of spiritual awareness and moral refinement of the individual. Hence, the prescribed behaviour of a monk for example would be much more difficult to adhere to than that expected of a lay person. In fact, the Buddhist texts identify many different levels of understanding, each with its own manner of behaviour33. Furthermore, moral refinement is viewed by Buddhists as a long drawn out process which for many merely causes a progression to a higher level of attainment in their next life34. So, in Buddhism, there are many levels of development each with its own particular guidance. McFarlane explains that the general rules on morality are therefore flexible and may be toughened or relaxed to suit the individual. He goes on to say that in Theravada Buddhism, only the monks follow the higher �Nibbanic Buddhism� with the aim of achieving liberation. The majority of devotees follow the lower �Kammatic Buddhism�35. It should be mentioned that the intention and attitude that accompany an act weigh heavily with consequence in Buddhist ethics. Deeds are performed by the body, speech and the mind, although deeds carried out are worth more than the intention to do a deed, which is not carried out. Furthermore, when the performed deed is for the general good, it not only cultivates refinement in the individual but it also sows the seeds of good tendencies for the future. Understandably, much of Buddhist practice and guidance centres on the psychology of training the mind. For the monastic sangha, the patimokkha is a vital resource for the monks� training and discipline. Herbert states that understanding and controlling one�s intentions to act are central to Buddhist teaching and practice36. Although the Mahayana is itself diverse, containing many different beliefs and practices, it mostly promotes a �generalisation� of its teachings and guidance as opposed to the Theravada tendency to direct its �higher� teachings towards the monastic sangha and its �lower�, general teachings to the laity37. For example, Eastern Mahayana Buddhism has generalised the Pali rule which forbade monks from engaging in any form of violence or military affair and extended this to the whole community38. The Mahayana also introduced the idea that under certain circumstances the fundamental rule that forbids a Buddhist from killing another human being may be waived if, for example, the killing saved other lives. McFarlane states that the same applies to the rules which forbid lying, stealing, adultery and wine drinking39. The most obvious moral issue that has divided the Jewish community is that of the segregation of women along with the role they play in the synagogue. According to Jewish Orthodoxy, a woman�s modesty is stressed to the extent that her total seclusion is encouraged. In practice, Orthodox women have traditionally remained in the home, away from the gaze of men, and are separated from the men in the synagogue; they are not permitted to lead a mixed service and are not permitted to become rabbis. In support of their stance, they would quote from scripture40 and the Talmud41. Non-Orthodox women, on the other hand, are usually permitted to enter the public domain; they generally sit alongside the men in the synagogue and, in certain cases, are allowed to become rabbis42. This is a view which is held by those who would also tend to argue that the Talmud especially was a product of its times and even the scriptural commandments carry no eternal application. Reform Judaism, founded in the early nineteenth century, has implemented the greatest number of changes to the traditional doctrines and has favoured instead a more conscience orientated stance on the issues which are prevalent today. The Re-constructionist movement, founded in 1922, has taken a similar position although they attach a much greater emphasis on the individual to form his/her own opinion as opposed to the collective approach of Reform Jews43. Therefore, the process of moral decision making varies considerably within Judaism. The same is true within Buddhism. Consequently, Jews, although they belong to the same religion, may come to make different moral decisions about the same issue. This is also the case with Buddhists. The difference of opinion is largely dependent on which particular branch of the faith the individual adheres to (within Buddhism, and to a lesser extent within Judaism, this generally depends on where he/she lives). This will influence how they view and interpret the original sources. Overall, it could be said that Buddhism is the more diverse and dynamic of the two faiths because each of its sanghas produces its own particular rule book and these rules may also be modified to suit each individual. However, the re-constructionist movement in Judaism appears to be just as flexible as each individual is encouraged to use his/her own personal reasoning in reaching opinions on moral issues. Notes 1. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, Pinter (London, England), p. 127. 2. Goldstein, D. (1987). JUDAISM (UNITS 1-2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England), pp. 9-11. 3. Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 3), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England), p. 92. See also Jayalakshmi, G. D. (producer) (1998). AUDIO CASSETTE 3: �MAKING MORAL DECISIONS�, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). 4. Goldstein, D, op cit, p. 11. 5. Ibid. See also Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 3), op cit, p. 95. 6. The Talmuds are extensive records of the discussions which rabbis had between the second and sixth centuries. 7. Goldstein, D, op cit, pp. 11, 14. 8. As early as 100 years after the death of Gotama, differences arose from within the Sangha (community) and these differences eventually led to the setting up of different monastic orders (nikaya�s) and later to the development of different schools of thought (vada�s). From these early schools of thought, the Theravada school is the only one which has existed to this day (Harvey, P (1990). AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England), p. 2). 9. The Mahayana school arose at around the start of the Christian era (ibid p. 89) as a loose conglomeration of groups each distinguished by its own new sutra (Pali: sutta) or new interpretation of one or more of the early teachings. 10. The most popular school followed in Southern Buddhism is the Therevada School. A Chinese version of the Mahayana school is practiced in Eastern Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism has its own Mantrayana form of Mahayana Buddhism (ibid p. 4). 11. For example, see ibid pp. 151-169 for a brief discussion of the Eastern schools, ibid pp. 144-147 for Northern schools, and ibid pp. 85-89 for Southern schools. 12. Originally, the Buddha�s teachings were preserved orally by the monastic sangha until around the first century BCE when they were finally transferred into writing (Waterhouse, H (2000). BUDDHISM UNITS 11-13, Open University (Milton Keynes, England), pp. 17, and 39). 13. Harvey, P, op cit, pp. 322-324. There are also the Mahayana scriptures written in the Sanskrit language. 14. Pali and Sanskrit are two languages of ancient India. 15. Ibid p. 322. 16. Ibid p. 234. 17. These are the stories of Gotama�s previous lives and actions. 18. Ibid p. 211. 19. Because the monasteries generally shun away from commercial activities and even from the production of foodstuffs, they are consequently reliant on the community for support and sustenance. In return, the monks will give sermons, and act as spiritual leaders and teachers for the community (Ibid p. 71). 20. Ibid pp. 65-66) 21. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, op cit, pp. 137-138. 22. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.) (2004). THE JEWISH STUDY BIBLE, Oxford University Press (New York, USA), Num 27: 21. 23. See Goldstein, D, op cit, pp. 16-17. 24. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, op cit, p. 132. 25. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, Deut 6: 7, Prov 1: 8. See also Beckerlegge, G (ed.) (1998). THE WORLD RELIGIONS READER, Routledge (London, England), pp. 60-61. 26. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, op cit, pp. 124-125. 27. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, Deut 30: 19. 28. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, op cit, p. 133. 29. Ibid p. 131. 30. Ibid p. 133. 31. Ibid p. 134. 32. Gowans, C. W. (2003). PHILOSOPHY OF THE BUDDHA, Routledge (London, England), p. 30. 33. Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 3), op cit, p. 108. 34. For these Buddhists a �good rebirth� is their primary aim and the accumulation of merit is seen as the means towards that goal. 35. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, op cit, pp. 17-25. 36. Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 3), op cit, p. 109. 37. McFarlane states that when this occurs, the �lower� general guidance should not at the same time, be underestimated (Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, op cit, p. 33). 38. Ibid p. 32. 39. Ibid p. 37. 40. See Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, Ps 45: 14-15; and Gen 18: 19. 41. For example, see Borowitz, E. and Schwartz, F (1999). THE JEWISH MORAL VIRTUES, The Jewish Publication Society (Philadelphia, USA), p. 156. 42. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). WOMEN IN RELIGION, Pinter (London, England), pp. 118-119, 133-134. See also Goldstein, D, op cit, p. 43. 43. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, pp. 149-150. Bibliography Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 3), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Beckerlegge, G (ed.) (1998). THE WORLD RELIGIONS READER, Routledge (London, England). Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.) (2004). THE JEWISH STUDY BIBLE, Oxford University Press (New York, USA). Borowitz, E. and Schwartz, F (1999). THE JEWISH MORAL VIRTUES, The Jewish Publication Society (Philadelphia, USA). Harvey, P (1990). AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England). Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). MAKING MORAL DECISIONS, Pinter (London, England). Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). WOMEN IN RELIGION, Pinter (London, England). Goldstein, D. (1987). JUDAISM (UNITS 1-2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Gowans, C. W. (2003). PHILOSOPHY OF THE BUDDHA, Routledge (London, England). Jayalakshmi, G. D. (producer) (1998). AUDIO CASSETTE 3: �MAKING MORAL DECISIONS�, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Open University (1998). AUDIO-VISUAL BOOKLET, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Philip, R (producer) (1998). AUDIO CASSETTE 4: �MAKING MORAL DECISIONS�, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Waterhouse, H (2000). BUDDHISM UNITS 11-13, Open University (Milton Keynes, England). |
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