| Judaism and Islam prescribe specific and different roles for women and men. Both religions encourage women to get married, to have and raise children and view this as their most important role. Because this could, and is considered by some to be restricting women to a limited number of roles at the expense of their freedom to choose not to get married, or not to have children or even to have children and enter the workplace at the same time, I will outline the Jewish and Muslim women�s domestic role and try to explain that, on this issue, it is debatable whether the two religions actually restrict women by assigning to them the role of home-maker.
I am also going to discuss the fact that both religions view women�s sexuality as being directly susceptible to impurity, for example during the menstrual period, and have thus set in place certain spiritual as well as marital restrictions which they are instructed to observe during these times. On this issue, both religions clearly do restrict women (at these times) but again it is debatable whether this is unfair or merely realistic. In general it should be noted that both Judaism and Islam incorporate a wide variety of differing practices and attitudes towards women. For example in Islam, Badawi points out that the four major Muslim Sunni schools of Law have differing views on the rights and responsibilities of women and that there are also regional differences between each of the four schools1. Furthermore, it would seem that the different and varying cultural attitudes towards women play and have played as important a part in influencing how women actually live and the roles that they play or have played. It could even be argued that the cultural influence does and has outweighed the religious influence in many countries. This being so, much of the criticism which is levelled at the two religions with respect to their treatment of women should surely then be redirected towards the cultures in which these two traditions have evolved around. First of all, it is important to know that the main role which a Jewish woman is expected to fulfil is that of the domestic homemaker2. She is expected to get married, have children and be a good and loving wife to her husband3. Wright states that although a Jewish woman�s place is traditionally at home and this was where she would occupy most of her time with cooking, cleaning and other household duties, later on she was permitted to work outside of the home and, in Reform Judaism, she was eventually authorized to participate in the synagogue service. Today, many Jewish women are allowed to take on an active role in the public domain4. Similarly, in Islam, the preservation of the family, marriage and motherhood are also considered to be the most essential roles for Muslim women to fulfil and these are considered to so important as to be crucial for the welfare of Muslim society5. Ati states that a wife�s main obligation is that she tries to create a happy and peaceful environment within the family home6. Having said this, according to Evans, Muslim women, like Jewish women, seem to be assuming more roles in the public domain nowadays7. Within marriage, the most important family duty for a Jewish woman is that of motherhood8. The institution of marriage, family life and the traditional upbringing of the children are all considered vital for the survival of Judaism. Jewish women are also responsible for ensuring that the family purity and strict dietary laws are upheld9. Likewise, in Islam, motherhood is also recognized as highly commendable10. Ati states that this is one of the most praiseworthy activities in Islam11. Parenting and especially a child�s early Islamic education and socialization are seen as being crucial roles12 for which the mother is jointly responsible with the father13. Another important feature of married life for the Jewish woman is that she be a loving wife to her husband14. She is also expected to be an obedient wife15. Wright adds to this that she is also expected to regulate the sexual relations between herself and her husband16. The purpose of marriage, according to the Qur�an is twofold: it is for procreation17 and for love18. Badawi states that traditionally the reciprocal role of a wife is to provide companionship with her husband19. Furthermore, a Muslim woman is expected to be obedient towards her husband20, unless her obedience conflicts with her religious conscience21. One of the main points of contention that many Westerners, or modernists of the Western world, have with the position of women in Judaism and Islam is the fact that in both religions they have been assigned the domestic role, that it is generally accepted that the husband will enter the public domain and the workplace, and so, it could be asserted that, in this respect, both of these religions do indeed confine women to a limited number of roles, all of them involving the mere daily running of the family home. However, in defence of the two traditions it could also be said that the same was true throughout western civilisation and history and only recently have western women started to assume a greater number of public roles. The main point of issue here, as is implied in the question, concerns women�s freedom within Judaism and Islam, or the lack of it, as is asserted by the modernists. The fact is, women in the West are increasingly assuming more roles in the public domain and this, say the modernists is evidence of their gaining greater freedom compared to practicing Jewish and Muslim women. However, Elliot states that most working mothers in Western society are not in fact pursuing high-income careers, but are working in part-time, low status jobs22. Furthermore, instead of participating in the domestic and parental duties, husbands in duel-earner relationships apparently only �help out� occasionally23. All this means that more and more Western women with children are assuming a new role, that of breadwinner or joint breadwinner, while still carrying out their traditional roles as housewife and mother. It would seem therefore that by working, mothers in the West are in fact increasing their burden, while at the same time lessening the onus on their husband to provide for his family. Both Judaism and Islam do restrict women to a certain extent because of their perceived state of impurity, called niddah in Judaism and menses in Islam. Pregnancy, childbirth and menstruation are all believed to be periods when a woman becomes �impure� and there are extensive rules and constraints which both Muslim and Jewish women must comply with at these times. For example, Muslim women are not permitted to pray24 or fast25 during their menses. They may, however, make up for the missed prayers and/or days of fasting afterwards, although this is not obligatory26. On completing their menses, Muslim women purify themselves by ritual bathing (ghusl). Similarly, the Jewish laws of niddah state that a woman is in a state of impurity during her menstrual period, usually seven days27 and also for another seven days after the menstrual flow has ended28. The same laws state that for a certain length of time following childbirth women are also to be considered as impure. During these periods of uncleanness, Jewish women were temporarily unfit to enter the Temple or to touch any sacred objects29. However, today the restrictions apply mainly to the physical contact a Jewish wife has with her husband. Although Muslim couples are similarly restricted from engaging in sexual relations during menses30, the Jewish laws go much further and forbid all physical contact. After their period of niddah, Jewish women also purify themselves by ritual bathing (mikweh). Therefore, both Judaism and Islam consider the two periods of pregnancy/childbirth and menstruation as having a polluting affect on women and both Jewish and Muslim women are restricted in two main areas of activity during this perceived state of impurity. These are their religious activities and their sexual relationships with their husbands. Muslim women, on the one hand, are restricted to a greater extent in their religious activities compared with their Jewish counterparts because Jewish women are allowed to pray during niddah which is forbidden for Muslim women during their menses although, according to Wright31 this was not the case for Jewish women at the time of the Temple. On the other hand, Jewish women appear to be restricted during niddah to a greater degree in their sexual relationship when compared to Muslim women because unlike Muslim women they are forbidden even to touch their husbands. Sexual intercourse is completely forbidden for both Jewish and Muslim women. Today, the role played by Jewish women in the synagogue, community and at home depends mainly on which branch of Judaism she and her family follows. For example, within non-Orthodox Judaism women may lead a mixed service, they may become rabbis and they pray equally with men in the synagogue. Jewish Orthodox women, on the other hand, are restricted to leading women only services32, they are not accepted as rabbis and are usually more active in other less influential areas such as fund-raising and catering33. Badawi claims that in Islam women are free to study and may acquire the title of religious scholar (�alimah) 34 or legal jurist35. Traditionally, they also pray separate from the men either to the rear of the mosque or from within a gallery, they usually have a separate entrance, and Badawi states that Muslim women are only permitted to lead prayers for other women36. According to Badawi, Muslim women must fulfil the same religious responsibilities incumbent upon men37. However, a Jewish woman�s religious role has traditionally been regarded as secondary in importance to the religious role played by her husband and men in general. There are various reasons for this. Most importantly, this is considered to be due to the fact that her first primary role is to ensure that the needs of her husband are met and for this reason she has been given exemption, or in other words restricted, from the male obligations of prayer, study and reading the Torah etc38. Traditionally, Jewish women are not allowed to read from or touch the sacred scrolls at the synagogue and they must sit separated from the men usually in women only galleries39. On the other hand, Jewish women do play an important religious role when worship takes place in the home for example, on the Sabbaths and during festivals, although Montague makes the point that in many Jewish homes the husband has assumed the wife�s leadership role in religious worship at these times40. In conclusion, it would seem that in both Jewish and Muslim communities, women are given less equality than the original religious teachings prescribe even though the numbers of women who stand out and have been recognised for their position of leadership or influence in the histories of the two religions are far fewer than might have been expected considering the many centuries over which the two religions have evolved. Nevertheless, the fact that there have been strong and powerful role models, for example A�isha41 and Muhammad�s wives42 in Islam and particularly Deborah, Miriam and Huldah43 in Judaism, has served to inspire those Jewish and Muslim women who endorse a greater participation for women within these two faiths. The crux of their argument is the assertion that the restrictions imposed upon Jewish and Muslim women today are largely culturally imposed as opposed to stemming from the original religious sources or law44. This opinion also counters the argument that Judaism and Islam both have confined women to a limited number of roles. Notes 1. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). WOMEN IN RELIGION, Pinter (London, England), pp. 91-2. 2. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.) (2004). THE JEWISH STUDY BIBLE, Oxford University Press (New York, USA), Prov 31: 27. 3. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 123. 4. Ibid pp. 133-4. 5. Ibid p.108. 6. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, Gen 1: 28. 7. Ati, H (1977). THE FAMILY STRUCTURE IN ISLAM, American Trust Publication (U. S. A.), pp. 168-169. 8. Hill, R (producer) (1997). AUDIO CASSETTE 2: �WOMEN IN RELIGION�, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England), Evans interview. 9. Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England), p. 63. See also Beckerlegge, G (ed.) (1998). THE WORLD RELIGIONS READER, Routledge (London, England), p. 71. 10. Bukhari, (1994). SAHIH AL-BUKHARI. Maktaba Dar-us-Salam Publishers & Distributers (Saudi Arabia), 10: 329; See also Ali, A. Y. (translator) (1934). THE HOLY QUR�AN, TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY, The Holy Koran Publishing House (Madina, Saudi Arabia), 46: 15. 11. Ati, H, op. cit, p. 198. 12. Ali, A. Y. (translator), op cit, 66: 6. 13. Bukhari, op cit, hadith 853. See also Ati, H, op cit, p. 199. 14. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, Gen 2: 24. 15. Ibid Gen. 3: 16. 16. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 123. 17. Ali, A. Y. (translator), op cit, 2: 223. 18. Ibid 30:21. 19. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 101. 20. Ali, A. Y. (translator), op cit, 4: 34; Zaehner, R. C. (1959). THE HUTCHINSON ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIVING FAITHS, Helicon Publishing L. T. D. (Oxford, England), p. 179; Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 103. 21. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 105. 22. Elliot, F. (1996). GENDER, FAMILY & SOCIETY, MacMillan Press, p. 28. 23. Ibid p.32. 24. Bukhari, op cit, 1: 327. 25. Ibid 1: 293. 26. Ibid 1: 318. 27. Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, Lev. 15: 19. 28. Ibid Lev. 15: 28. 29. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, pp. 130-131. 30. Ali, A. Y. (translator), op cit, 2: 222. 31. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, pp 130-131. 32. Ibid pp 118-9, 139. 33. Goldstein, D. (1987). JUDAISM (UNITS 1-2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England), p. 17. 34. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 84. 35. Ibid p. 91. 36. Ibid p. 109. 37. Ibid p. 92. 38. Ibid p. 137. See also Hill, R , op cit, Montague interview. 39. Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England), pp. 63, 65. 40. Hill, R (producer), op cit, Montague interview. 41. Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, pp. 86, 88. 42. Ibid p. 89. 43. See Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.), op cit, the Book of Judges. 44. See Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.), op cit, p. 109 for Badawi�s discussion on why she believes this is the case in Islam and Hill, R (producer), op cit, for Montague�s similar opinion on Judaism. See also Beckerlegge, G (ed.) (1998). THE WORLD RELIGIONS READER, Routledge (London, England), p. 69; and Hill, R (producer), op cit, Evans interview. Bibliography Ali, A. Y. (translator) (1934). THE HOLY QUR�AN, TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY, The Holy Koran Publishing House (Madina, Saudi Arabia). Ati, H (1977). THE FAMILY STRUCTURE IN ISLAM, American Trust Publication (U. S. A.). Beckerlegge, G (ed.) (1998). THE WORLD RELIGIONS READER, Routledge (London, England). Beckerlegge, G (1998). STUDY GUIDES (STUDY GUIDE 2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Berlin, A. and Brettler, Z (ed.) (2004). THE JEWISH STUDY BIBLE, Oxford University Press (New York, USA). Bukhari, (1994). SAHIH AL-BUKHARI. Maktaba Dar-us-Salam Publishers & Distributers (Saudi Arabia). Cohn-Sherbok, D. (2003). JUDAISM (HISTORY, BELIEF AND PRACTICE), Routledge (USA and CANADA). Cragg, K. (1987). ISLAM (UNITS 5-6), The Open University, (Milton Keynes, England). Elliot, F. (1996). GENDER, FAMILY & SOCIETY, MacMillan Press. Goldstein, D. (1987). JUDAISM (UNITS 1-2), The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Hill, R (producer) (1997). AUDIO CASSETTE 2: �WOMEN IN RELIGION�, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Holm, J; Bowker, J (ed.) (1994). WOMEN IN RELIGION, Pinter (London, England). Open University (1998). AUDIO-VISUAL BOOKLET, The Open University (Milton Keynes, England). Zaehner, R. C. (1959). THE HUTCHINSON ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIVING FAITHS, Helicon Publishing L. T. D. (Oxford, England). |
| The role of women in Judaism and Islam R McDowell |
| Islamic Review |
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