| Dharma R McDowell |
| Islamic Review |
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| The meaning of dharma
Weightman states that in Hinduism every living being should live according to the laws that pertain to its own particular nature. He goes on to say that Dharma is considered to be the practical guide, which illustrates the proper way of living and observance that is most appropriate for each member of society. Dharma is in particular concerned with upholding and regulating the caste hierarchy. For example, dharma requires that a Hindu adhere to the rules of his particular caste especially those concerning purity and pollution1. Basham puts forward the view2 that dharma is generally thought of as an eternally set, divine code of conduct, or sacred law which must not be altered, only interpreted by legislation or through social reform. Flood states that the sources of Dharma are ultimately the Veda, and the oral texts contained within the Vedic traditions (sakha) that are concerned with ritual and law, known as the Kalpa Sutras3. The good custom or practice of the virtuous also served as a source of Dharma. Together these have produced an all-encompassing body of rules for the performance of public and Vedic ritual, rules for ritual purity and rites of passage, rules governing and characterizing social relationships between and within groups, as well as directives for the correct human conduct and behaviour, gender roles and so on4. By following his dharma, the Hindu will avoid sin (pap) and acquire religious merit (punya), which in turn increases the likelihood of his being reborn well. By fulfilling his dharma, a Hindu will also gain good repute and this in turn is believed to bring prosperity and well being in this life. Therefore, dharma is perceived as the universal law, which, if followed, will ultimately result in a better reincarnation for the individual in his next life as well as a better society for every individual in this world5. A general dharma (sadharan) applies commonly to all Hindus. Basically this means good and correct behaviour. So, Sadharan dharma could be described as the general moral system of Hinduism encouraging honesty, morality etc while prohibiting murder, cruelty, injustice and so on. Sadharan dharma also includes the obligation to respect the Brahmans, the Vedas and to honour the gods. In addition, all Hindus are encouraged to acquire extra religious merit through the performance of certain acts, which are not deemed to be obligatory but nevertheless promoted. These include for example, the giving of alms to the Brahmans or to the poor, reading the scriptures, pilgrimage to the spiritual centres, bathing in the Ganges, performing special acts of worship and sacrifices in the names of the deities and so on6. The four separate classes of society each have their own role to play and rules to follow. For instance, a Brahman will study the Vedas, which is forbidden for a lower class man. On the other hand, a low-class man is permitted to drink alcohol, which is forbidden for the Brahman. As the highest class, the brahmana are responsible for teaching, performing religious ceremonies etc. The kshatriya are the noblemen who maintain law and order, the vaisya are the merchants and peasants and the sudra could be described as the menial workers or labourers. Each of the four different classes has its own set of responsibilities and rights7. Even the king is bound to follow his own particular dharma. His functions include the protection of the people, the enforcement of the social order by the control of caste boundaries, and the administration of justice. If he fulfils his dharma, then it is believed that the kingdom will prosper. If he acts against his dharma, then the kingdom, as a whole, will suffer8. Furthermore, each individual must also follow his own specific dharma, which applies to him because of his belonging to a certain caste or sub-caste. Basham notes that there are thousands of these different castes across India. For example, the lower caste members of society (usually those involved in leatherworking, butchering etc) are perceived of as being impure and therefore this particular caste group is �untouchable� and must avoid all close contact with higher castes9. In actual fact, dharma covers nearly every aspect of a Hindu�s life. It is considered to be the guiding principle of all a person�s actions. For example, a Hindu is bound by certain etiquettes of dressing, bathing and eating. A Brahman must study and teach, a soldier must fight, a sudra must serve the higher classes and so on10. Weightman explains that, for the Hindu, there are three main methods of learning what his dharma entails. Firstly, he states that dharma is learnt through scripture, which, for the majority of Hindus, would occur through contact with someone of knowledge, possibly one of the preachers who wander through the countryside. Secondly, dharma is learnt through the telling of stories and myths usually passed on within the family. And thirdly, dharma is transmitted through custom when it becomes the established practice of the community, caste, and sub caste etc11. So, Dharma is a wide-ranging ideology, which seeks to regulate all ritual and moral activities. It is life ritualised and ordered according to the rules originating in the Veda, tradition and good custom. Dharma includes domestic rituals and ceremonies, everyday and life cycle sacraments, civil and criminal law, constitutional law etc. There is a dharma of sex, dharma of women, dharma of animals. Hinduism itself is also sometimes called Sanatana Dharma (the eternal dharma). It is believed to have the effect of keeping the world in order, without which social harmony would break down and chaos would ensue. So, dharma is also viewed as the regulatory law that maintains the cosmic order. Arjuna�s dharma Chapter one of the Bhagavad Gita describes the great Mahabharata battle scene on the sacred plain of Kuruksetra between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The two central characters are Lord Krishna and the mighty warrior Prince Arjuna at the head of the Pandava army. Krishna arrives on the battlefield in a great chariot with Arjuna. After introducing the main commanders of both armies, the Bhagavad Gita goes on to reveal that just before the battle commences, Arjuna requests that he inspect the two armies and Krishna drives their chariot into the middle of the battleground. On seeing that many of his friends and even members of his own family are on opposing sides of the battlefield, Arjuna is bewildered and becomes unwilling to join in the fight. He sees his grandfathers, uncles, his brother Duryodhana, his son Laksmana and many of his friends. Arjuna becomes overwhelmed with compassion and sorrow that they are willing to fight amongst themselves. He also believes that any victory of his would be soured by his own lamentation at the resulting loss of life. Overcome with sorrow and grief, Arjuna�s determination fails him, he becomes confused and in the end decides not to fight. His growing reluctance to do battle is described due to his fear of losing friends and members of his family during the course of the battle and he is also unwilling to commit the subsequent sins that he believes would result from such actions. Arjuna has a great affection for his community and family and reasons that he would be unable to fight, to destroy his own relatives for the sake of the kingdom and worldly gains. He fears that all his relatives will be killed on the field of battle. Although they had wronged him, Ajuna wanted to forgive them. He was a saintly man, a devotee of the Lord, and rather than destroy them for political reasons, he preferred instead to forgive them for religious reasons. Hence, the first chapter of the bhagavad Gita is entitled �The despondency of Arjuna�. Allowing his bow to slip from his hands, Arjuna turns to Lord Krishna for help and guidance. In chapter eighteen of the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna�s charioteer Krishna persuades him to cast away all his uncertainties and rejoin the battle. Krishna tells Arjuna that he would be considered a coward if he refuses to fight and reminds him that it is his dharma to fight. He is a warrior and a warrior must fight. Krishna explains to Arjuna that he will build up good karma especially as the fighting will be for a just cause. First of all Krishna explains the meaning and purpose of the four natural classifications of mankind. He identifies these as being the brahmanas, the ksatriyas (of which Arjuna belongs), vaishyas and sudras and explains that these groups are distinguished according to their natural born qualities inherited as a result of their own free choice of good and evil actions (karma) in their past lives. He describes the natural qualities of the brahmana as being purity, tolerance, honesty and religiousness etc and explains that they are therefore best qualified to provide the religious teaching to the community, to perform religious rites and so on. Vaishyas are naturally suited for working the land and to engage in commerce and the sudras are naturally suited for manual labour. Krishna lists Valor, endurance, courage and leadership as the inherent qualities of the ksatriyas. Because Arjuna is a ksatriya, Krishna explains that he possesses all the natural virtues of a noble soldier. He states that man is duty bound to accept and carry out the occupational duties that have been prescribed for the four classes of men. However pious a ksatiya may be, he must still engage in battle with his enemies. But he must do so with Krishna consciousness. He must always think of Him and act for Him. Krishna further states that by worshipping God and by performing the work he was destined to perform, man can attain the highest perfection of life. Therefore if Arjuna fulfils the warrior duties that have been prescribed for him and if he does so in the name of God, then he will have nothing to fear. In this way Arjuna can serve his lord through his work. It follows that ksatriyas who kill their enemies on the battlefield are not held to account for their actions. Arjuna�s false reasoning presumed that he would bring sin upon himself for fighting in the battle. He considered himself master of his actions when in fact God had endowed him with the natural ability to fight and had ordained him to do so. Krisha explains to Arjuna that the ultimate purpose and goal of life on earth is to achieve moksha, or salvation, which would break the chains of samsara (the cycle of rebirth) and result in union with Brahman (the Absolute). He explains that there are four yogas or methods to achieve moksha. Meditation and knowledge are the methods traditionally practiced by the brahmana (priestly class). However he states that anyone from any of the lower classes can achieve moksha through indifference (karma yoga) and devotion (bhakti yoga). By indifference he means indifference to the fruits of one�s actions. If Arjuna acts with holy indifference to the results of his actions, he will gain merit. By devotion Krishna means remembrance of God. So, if Arjuna performs each act with his mind focused on God alone he will attain Moksha. Arjuna is still not convinced so, in the end, Krishna reveals his Divine identity and Arjuna, filled with awe, finally agrees to fight in the battle. He casts away his doubts and decides to act according to Krishna�s instructions. He realises that it is God�s plan that he fight and Arjuna agrees to do so according to God�s desire and his own dharma. He lifted up his bow and fought with devotion under the command of God. Notes 1. Beckerlegge, G; Weightman, S; McDermott, R (1987). HINDUISM (UNITS 7-10), The Open University, (Milton Keynes, England) p. 39. 2. Zaehner, R. C. (1959). THE HUTCHINSON ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIVING FAITHS, Helicon Publishing L. T. D. (Oxford, England) p. 244. 3. These were composed between 800-400 BCE. See Flood, G. (1996). AN INTRODUCTION TO HINDUISM, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England) p. 53. 4. Ibid pp. 53-5. 5. Beckerlegge, G; Weightman, S; McDermott, R, op cit, p. 39. 6. Ibid p. 47. 7. Zaehner, R. C., op cit, p. 244-5. 8. Flood, G., op cit, pp. 67-74. 9. Zaehner, R. C., op cit, p. 245. 10. Beckerlegge, G; Weightman, S; McDermott, R, op cit, pp.46-7, 52. 11. Ibid p. 47-8. Bibliography Beckerlegge, G (ed.) (1998). THE WORLD RELIGIONS READER, Routledge (London, England). Beckerlegge, G; Weightman, S; McDermott, R (1987). HINDUISM (UNITS 7-10), The Open University, (Milton Keynes, England). Flood, G. (1996). AN INTRODUCTION TO HINDUISM, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England). Yogananda, Paramahansa (trans.) (1995). THE BHAGAVAD GITA (translation and commentary), Self-Realization Fellowship (U. S. A.). Zaehner, R. C. (1959). THE HUTCHINSON ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIVING FAITHS, Helicon Publishing L. T. D. (Oxford, England). |