History of the United Kingdom - Invasions before 1066 (their impact on the life on the islands). - England after 1066 under the Norman reign. - The origin of British Parilament; - The age of reformation; - Changes of ruling system in the 17th century; - British Empire: industrial revolution; overseas territories and their role for the Crown; - Decline of the empire; Invasions of Britain There are six particular historical moments to concern us here, starting with the migration of Indo-European peoples from their origins in southern Russia. The five subsequent movements involve the invasion of Britain and the mixture of languages which the invaders brought with them go to make up that mongrel language modern English. The main reasons for the historical invasions of Britain were: the country was large compared to the power of their civilization the country was rich in fertile land and materials the country was an island fairly central to other areas the invaders' populations were growing and they needed space for new settlements the country was popular with many tribes and the first to capture it would have a large and well positioned stronghold over their enemies the invaders had the technology to take over. First settlers: 250,000 BC First evidence of human life (stone tools) 2,400 BC The "Beaker" people arrive, bringing a single culture to Britain; they make bronze tools. The Celts From about 300 BC onwards, waves of fair or red-haired and blue-eyed people began to invade - the Celts: - Their use of iron and their advanced farming made them successful farmers and traders. - The Celtic tribes were ruled by a warrior class, and priests, or druids were particularly important. Soon the Celts controlled all the lowland areas of Britain, and gradually the people in highland areas adopted Celtic culture. The Roman period Britain had become an important food producer under the Celts, but that wasn;t the reason that brought Romans to Britain. During the Roman period roads were built following ancient tracks. These roads were well constructed and were used after the Romans left, becoming the main roads of Britain. The Romans could not conquer Scotland ("Caledonia"), so they built a strong wall across the northern border, Hadrian`s wall, to keep out the Scots and Picts. Resistance to Roman occupation decreased. The people largely assimilated Roman customs and manners. Some Britons learnt to speak and write Latin. The Romans imposed their own way of life and culture, but they left very little behind. Most of their villas, baths, temples, roads were soon destroyed. Almost the only lasting reminder are place names like Chester and Lancester. Christianity was introduced to during the reign of Emperor Constantine (4th century AD). The Germanic invasion ( Anglo - Saxon invasion) At first the Germanic groups raided Britain in sporadic attacks, but after 430 AD they began to settle in larger numbers. These invaders came from three Germanic tribes, the Saxons, the Angels, and the Jutes, from the lowlands of what are now the Netherlands, the Frisian islands, northern Germany, and Denmark. - The Saxons settled in a band of land from the Thames estuary westwards. - The Angles settled in the East and in the north Midlands. - The Jutes settled in Kent and along the South coast. They were regarded as no different from the Angels and Saxons; people speak of an "Anglo-Saxon" invasion, as if Jutes had no part in it. The Anglo-Saxon invasion gave the larger part of Britain a new name: - The land of the Angles - Angle + land - England The Anglo-Saxons were the best farmers the land had ever known: - They drained the wetlands and cleared the forests, creating in the course of time the English countryside as we know it today. - They colonized previously unfarmed areas and founded new settlements all over the country. - They worked the heavier soils of the eastern midlands, using a heavy plough which required six or eight oxen to pull. - By working together to cultivate the land, they made good progress against the wilderness, and made each village a close-knit community. Meanwhile the Saxons were a highly developed nation with a strong sense of national identity. - The villages were largely self-governing - each village kept its own peace and justice, acknowledging the tribal king, who was chosen for life by the chief warriors. - The land was divided into a number of administrative units, the shires. These land divisions, created in the course of the tenth century, have virtually remained the same for a thousand years. - A number of kingdoms were established. The three largest, Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex, became the most powerful. One of the Saxon institutions was the Kings`s Council, known as the Witan. Each Anglo-Saxon king had an advisory body of thirty or forty men, who were clergy (usually bishops) and laymen of importance, experience or acknowledged wisdom, who acted as a kind of Council of Ministers. The Witan had the power to choose who would succeed to the kingdom. There was no automatic right of succession, as in England today. The Viking invasions From the end of the 8th century onwards new raiders were tempted to ravage Europe - the Vikings or Norsemen. Between 834 and 845 they sacked Utrecht, Rouen and Paris; in 851 they burnt down Canterbury and London. Nobody could stop them. The British Saxon kings had no navy, no combined army, no accepted military leader, and were more likely to quarrel amongst themselves than join in battle against their common enemy. In just two decades the Vikings systematically destroyed the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia; only one Saxon kingdom remained, Wessex. This insulted in an argument which divided England between Wessex and the Danelaw. By the end of the 10th century England was one kingdom with a Germanic culture throughout. Norman Reign 1066 - 1485 On October 14th , 1066 an invading army from Normandy defeated the English at the Battle of Hastings. King Harold died during this battle. The Norman kings established a strong central government and feudal state. The lords and the barons were the French ? speaking Normans. This was the beginning of the English class system. Anglo - Norman kingdom was easily the most powerful political force in British Isles. The French language of the Norman rulers eventually merged with the Anglo - Saxon of the common people to form the English language. It was the Anglo - Saxon concept of common law Welsh language and culture remainded strong. The political independence of Scotland did not prevent a gradual switch to English language and customs. The origin of British Parliament Parliament began its gradual evolution into the democratic body which is today. The word PARLIAMENT which comes from the French was first was used in the 13th century to describe an assembly of nobles called together by the king. Kings, Richard and John, had conflicts with the clergy and nobles, and eventually John was forced to grant the nobles concessions in the Magna Carta (1215). The concept of community of the realm developed during the 13th century, providing the foundation for paliamentary government. During the reign of Edward I, statute law developed to supplement English common law, and the first Parliament was convened. Parliament was split into 2 houses: House of Lords ? which consisted of the feudal aristocracy and leaders of church and House of Commons - representatives from the towns. One of the earliest legal documents which specifically limited the power of government over its citizens was the Magna Carta, signed by King John of England in 1215. It is a contract between the King and his subjects, and between his descendents and their descendents "forever." Most of its articles applied to specific abuses of the time, but it guarantees the freedom of the English Church from royal interference, protected the property and inheritance rights of underage heirs and widows, limited taxes, established standing and roving courts to deal with criminal and civil issues, stated that punishment should fit the crime, and forbade officials to steal from citizens, noble or freeborn commoners. It also put on paper, for the first time, English concepts of due process and forbade bribery of judges and other legal authorities. The Age of Reformation Henry VIII was impelled to quarrel with the Papacy owing to the desire to dissolve his marriage with Catherine of Aragon. He also wanted to prevent the interference of foreign powers in the national and international affairs of the country. Henry used Parliament to pass law which swept away the power of the Roman Church in England. By initiating the Reformation, Henry VIII intended to change the organization of the Church, its doctrines and methods regarding worship. The doctrines and practices of Luther and Calvin arose only later. Historically Henry VIII was the first to resist the Catholic Church. He became a head of the Church of England. Protestantism became majority religion in England. It took a form known as Anglicanism. Mary undid all of Henry?s reformation. She secured the reconciliation of England to Rome. She married a Stuart Catholic and tried to enforce Catholicism on English people. Her successor, Elizabeth maintained the compromise policy i.e., she combined the principles of both faiths and established the "Anglican Church." She personally supported the Protestant movement in Europe. Changes of ruling system in the 17th century James I, a Scottish cousin of Elisabeth I became a king (1603 - 1625). The Stuart dynasty started ruling England. He was a catholic and England itself was a place of a battle of the two religions : Catholicism and Protestantism. His son Charles I took the throne over in 1625, who was also a catholic. The economic situation of that time wasvery bad and the main problem was inflation. Because of that king had to increase the taxes. He tried to rise them without Parliament?s agreement. In 1649 the Civil War began. This event in popularly remembered as a contest between fun loving, aristocratic, royalist ?Cavalieres? who nevertheless were strong in their beliefs and puritan parliamentarian ? Roundheads ? who nevertheless had right on their side. In 1649 Charles I was executed in the Civil War. Three years later Oliver Cromwell, the leader of parliamentary army, became the Lord Protector of England. He didn?t call himself a king. The introduced a strict law. People didn?t like his regime. After his death the monarchy was reestablished in 1658. His son became shortly a Lord Protector and in 1660 Charles II became the king of England and it?s also called as the Restoration. It was a totally new quality for living in England. Charles II brought customs and his own court with him. The theatres, which were banned during the reign of Oliver Cromwell , are possible again. It was a better time for British people and the king was called as a Merry Monarch. He had a lot of children, but none of the right bed., therefore he didn?t have a successor. His brother , James II, was chosen to be the king. He was again an open Catholic (1685 ? 1888). In 1688 a Glorious Revolution began, because people were unsatisfied with Catholicism. William the Orange launded in England and reestablished the protestantism. James II was expelled. Parliament became stronger after the Glorious Revolution. Every ruling monarch had to consider Parliament. Ann, William the Orange?s wife, becomes a queen. British Empire Between 1750 and 1900 Britain built up a huge empire. An empire is when one country takes over another and rules many other countries. The countries that are ruled over are called colonies. In 1750 Britain did not have any colonies because politicians thought it would be to expensive, they soon changed their minds though? By 1900 Britain had bult up a huge empire which covered one quarter of the world. Here is a list of some of the countries in the empire: New Zealand Gold Coast Hong Kong Nigeria British New Guinea British Guinea Singapore Jamaica Ceylon Bahamas British East Africa Austrailia Aden Canada Gambia Britain Sierra Leone .Queen Victoria was head of all this land and had many titles. There were many ways in which the British Empire was built up. Here are some of the ways:- Prizes- Britain sometimes gained land from winning wars Wars Of Conquest- This is when Britain fought countries with the intention of gaining land. By agreement- When land was taken by making an agreement with another country. By exploration-When land was discovered by famous explorers i.e James Cook the land was made part of the British Empire. There was many reasons why Britain wanted an empire. Trade- People thought Britain could get rich by trading things with countries. Merchants could export and import goods cheaply. The colonies could only trade with Britain. They also had to use British ships to carry goods, and taxs were put on goods made in the colonies making them dearer than British goods. Britain was able to buy cheap cotton, sugar, cocoa and tea from the colonies. These were made into British products in British factories and factory owners made big profits. Over time bigger ships came into use and Britain was able to buy large quantities of cheap food. Wheat came from Canada, and meat and butter came from New Zealand and Austrailia. So with an empire and ship ports being build all over England it made trade a lot easier. People also though that by having an empire it would make Britain powerful over seas and that people in other countries would benefit being under British rule as they would learn about science and machines and become christians. Again to do with trade Britain did not have many raw materials such as cotton, pig iron, and timber and so would need to import them so Britain could create marvellous things i.e fountains. Besides the British Empire, Britian also took part in the slave trade to become an even richer country. The slaves on these journeys were treated in a shameful manner. They were packed tightly into the bottom of the ship and could not move. Britain gained from the slave trade in many ways. People in Britain could buy cotton, tobacco and sugar cheaply. British merchants grew rich. They built factories, canals, and railways with the money they made. Cities became rich and important i.e Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, and Lancaster as the ports were here where slavery took place in Britain. Some slaves were brought to Britain. At the time you were in fashion if you had a black slave in your house so everyone (the rich) bought one. I think that the building of the British Empire led to the Industrial Revolution in he sense that by importing and exporting Britain became rich and had many raw materials and so could create new things, new machinery for factories, and so without the empire Britains factories might not have had such wonderful machinery for the time and there might not have been such a big revolution. Also by ruling one quarter of the world Britain was powerful and rich and so could do anything they wanted too and nobody could stop them. I think the slave trade affected the Industrial Revolution in the sense that it made Britain even richer so Britain could build things i.e canals, factories. Bristol and Liverpool ports made ?1,000,000 a year in profit. It enabled the British to have more luxorious things more often i.e tea and tobacco. I personally think that it helped lead to the revolution because people had different views on it. Abolitionists wanted it banning others didn't. The rich people learnt about how it was wrong from leaflets and changed there views. I think this showed that ordinary people started having opinions and putting there views into action on things they believed were wrong. People had more ideas on things and this can be linked with people invening things and being brave and adventurous. From looking at all of these facts through out the essay it is clear to see that Britain changed a tremendous amount during these 150 years. New roads, railways and canals were built so people and items could get to places a lot easier and quicker. Britains population grew by about 30 milllion. The majority of people moved from the countryside to the towns and cities to work in the new factories. New inventors came up with new ideas and invenions to create things quicker and cheaper. Britain built up an empire of about one quarter of the world and became a rich a powerful country. Slaves were sold to plantations for goods i.e tobacco. I think the one that had the greatest impact on the Industrial Revolution is inventors coming up with new ideas and inventions. I mean without the inventors they would not have been canals or machinery for factories or new roads because they all had to be designed and created in the first place. Decline of the British Empire The reason why Britain could no longer be the leader among the European powers was her geographical factor. It is not surprising that, in view of the vast resources and rapid population growth of the United States and Russia, it is not surprising that they would eventually overtake the small island nation. The British monetary primacy was also coming to an end. Before World War I, the major aspect of British primacy was the use of the international gold standard, occasionally interpreted as the sterling standard. However, the Bank of England had to borrow heavily to help the ?Bank of France during the Franco-Prussian War.? Another theory of British decline goes back to the empirical roles Britain had to play. From 1895 to 1905, critical questions of trade, finance, the Royal Navy, and military defense of India plagued the British government. In fact, strained by the expenses of the Boer War, a question was posed of whether Britain should or could continue to protect its world empire or should give up the defense of Canada. In 1867, Canada became a dominion, followed by Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster established the word ?dominion? as synonymous with complete independence. The major countries which left the Empire and became independent : - Ireland, independent 1921, Republic 1938, leaves Commonwealth 1949 - Egypt, shares of Suez Canal purchased 1875, country occupied 1882, protectorate 1914, independent 1922, Suez Canal occupied until 1956, Canal nationalized 1956 - Palestine, occupied 1917, mandate 1921, independent 1948 - Iraq, occupied 1918, mandate 1921-1932, independent 1932 - Kuwait, protectorate 1904, independent 1961 - Hong Kong, 1841, to China 1997 - United States, independent 1783 - Surinam, 1651, Dutch Guiana 1668 By the beginning of the 20th century, Britain began to suffer increasing competition in both trade and manufacturing. Now, the United Kingdom is a world leader in only a few areas, such as luxury goods, defense equipment and chemical products. North Sea oil productions and services have become much more important. However, the region does suffer persistent problems of high unemployment. Although London has become a principal money market, it has some problems of its own. The City, the main financial district in the heart of London, is struggling to maintain its international position, being faced with competition from Tokyo, Frankfurt and New York. However, even after the overall decline, hastened by the great destruction and expense of the two World Wars and the breakup of the British Empire, Great Britain still remains a major player on the European economic arena. It is the largest investor abroad, particularly in the United States. Foreign money flow into the nation from abroad, particularly Japan. The economy is transforming to the services from the manufacturing industries. |