There have been significant developments over the last 10-15 years concerning childhood social predictors and the relationship of them to adolescent antisocial behavior. Many studies have been conducted which lend credence to the assumption that human aggression is often a direct result of peer rejection. In turn, childhood aggression is often a predictor of high-risk behaviors later in life. Numerous articles have been written which outline these studies and define the correlations between peer rejection and other anti-social behaviors. This paper will attempt to review and critique several of these sources and express the importance of this research and its applicability.

In an article written by Gary W. Ladd (1999), his primary focus was on the impact, which social groups have on individual development. It has been determined that there are associations between a child�s characteristics and his position in his peer group. In this study, it is shown that anti-social and disruptive behaviors are very likely causes of poor peer relations, whereas more pro-social behaviors lead to more positive outcomes, such as peer acceptance.

Ladd also relates that children who were trained in social skills formed positive peer relations. Children who had formed poor social skills were more likely to form problematic relationships. The differences in peer relations have a direct impact on children�s goals and strategies for their personal peer interactions. Children with low peer acceptance had a tendency to form more self-focused goals and devised aggressive strategies. Higher levels of perceived competence and self-efficacy were found among well-liked children. The level of a child�s social skills or social deficits are formed early in life, generally within the family structure.

Ladd stated that, �Poor social skills and skill deficits were found to be more common among children who were experiencing family disruption (e.g. marital discord, divorce) and dysfunction (e.g. parental depression, child abuse)� ( p. 4).

Lewin�s (1999) study addressed the social predicators in childhood and it�s impact on antisocial adolescent based on gender. The article presents a discussion about early predictor models. Lewin notes that almost all the studies that have been conducted have attempted to identify the early predictors of anti-social behavior in order to classify �at-risk� and �non-risk� children. Many of the studies have focused primarily on peer rejection and aggression as early predictors of anti-social behavior, other factors are also quite important. Examples of these are disruptive-hyperactive behavior, low pro-social behavior, and academic failure. It was shown that the form of aggressive behavior differs for boys and girls. As far as gender is concerned, the strongest predictor for anti-social behavior for boys is that of direct physical aggressive behavior. In girls, indirect aggressive behavior is likely to be an early predictor.

Lewin�s subjects were 314 adolescents, which were originally assessed in elementary school, then again in high school. Researchers obtained peer ratings, teacher ratings, and conducted classroom and playground observations. The purpose of this study was to define early problems and the accuracy with which later aggressive behavior can be predicted.

According to Anderson (2002) in his discussion of �Human Aggression�, focuses on aggression and the various theories, which it is related to. Several theories have been developed concerning aggressive behavior in adolescents. These include cognitive neoassociation theory, social learning theory, social interaction theory, script theory, and excitation transfer theory.

Human aggression as defined is any behavior, which is directed toward another individual carried out with the immediate threat to cause harm. In order for the aggressor to receive fulfillment from his aggressive behavior, he must believe that the behavior will harm the target and that the target is motivated to avoid the behavior.

Researchers believe that some causes of increased violence in today�s society are the accessibility of guns, global warming, and violence against children within their schools and their own homes, and the access to widespread exposure to violent entertainment media. Violence is a form of aggression, which has extreme harm as its goal. All violence can be considered aggressive; however, not all aggression is violent in nature.

Significant information of the General Aggression Model (GAM) is given in this article. Research on aggression focuses on the factors, which influence aggression, such as biological, environmental, psychological, and social factors. It is for this reason that GAM examines how various factors lead to aggressive behaviors. Person factors, such as traits, sex, and values, and situational factors, such as aggressive cues, provocation, and drugs, are factors that affect aggression. Repeated exposure to these factors, such as media violence and poor parenting, has the effect of creating aggressive adults.

One phenomenon that is a powerful predictor for aggression is opportunity. Some settings serve to encourage aggressive behavior, such as a bar setting, because there are many aggression facilitators present. On the other hand, occasions such as church services tend to impede aggressive behavior. Anderson also states that most people would not commit violent acts, even if they thought that they could do so and not get caught. Self-image, self-standards, and self-worth are examples of the standards, which most people apply to themselves, and they cannot easily forsake these standards.

A study by Miller-Johnson (2002) focused on the effects of rejection and aggression noting that there has been a growing recognition of the relationship between peer relations and behavior problems in adolescents. Accordingly, it is believed that, along with an existing tendency toward behavior problems, poor peer relations can accelerate the onset of more severe behavior problems.

Miller-Johnson reports on a study conducted by Bierman, Smoot, and Aumiller (1993) which investigated a sample of elementary school level Caucasian boys who were separated into four classifications: rejected only, aggressive only, rejected and aggressive, and neither rejected nor aggressive. This study determined that the combination of peer rejection and aggression could be associated with any number of behavioral problems. After two years, a follow-up was conducted by Bierman and Wargo (1995) which showed that boys who had been both rejected and aggressive continued to show aggressive and anti-social tendencies than the boys who had been classified as aggressive, but not rejected.

It is believed that aggression and peer rejection can forecast future behavior problems, and that these early predictors can be determined as early as third grade. There have been suggestions that there may be strong ties between peer rejection and the symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD). Children diagnosed with ADHD may have the feeling of being rejected which may promote later behavior problems. Children who feel rejected typically display poor social skills, and react negatively and are insensitive to other�s feelings. Being rejected significantly increased children�s tendencies to behave aggressively.

Although social competence does not appear to have any direct effect on subsequent conduct problems, aggression and ADHD diagnosed in first grade seem to be forerunners to later behavioral problems. Peer rejection also seems to be predictive of conduct problems even without the presence of aggressive behavior. Social competencies are critical for healthy development. Rejected children quite often exhibit anti-social behaviors. Miller-Johnson also notes that peer rejection in Kindergarten may lead to negative attitudes towards school and hinder future academic performance. Results from this study suggest that early diagnosis and treatment of ADHD may put a halt to the consequences of peer rejection.

The long-term consequences of sustained peer rejection can be quite serious. Often, deficits in social competence and peer rejection coincide with other emotional and behavioral problems, as previously mentions they may include attention deficits, aggression, and depression. The importance of social competence and satisfying social relations is life-long. Friendship appears to be a critical source of social support that protects against the negative effects of life stress. People with few friends are at elevated risk for depression and anxiety. Childhood peer rejection predicts a variety of difficulties in later life, including school problems, mental health disorders, and antisocial behavior. In fact, peer rejection has proved to be a more sensitive predictor of later mental health problems than school records, achievement, and IQ scores or teacher ratings.

It appears, then, that positive peer relations play an important role in supporting the process of healthy social and emotional development. Problematic peer relations are associated with both concurrent and future maladjustment of children, and hence warrant serious attention from parents and professionals working with children. When assessing the possible factors contributing to a child's social difficulties and when planning remedial interventions, it is important to understand developmental processes associated with social competence and peer relations.

The connection between peer relations and aggression are further confirmed by the study conducted by Keltikangas-Jarvinen. He addressed the relativity between aggressive problem-solving strategies, aggressive behavior, and the intervening role of social acceptance in early and late adolescence.

This study examines children in varying stages of adolescence, and how the effects of social cognition and aggressive behavior relate to these stages. It has been determined that the most important stage for intervention to be successful is in middle adolescence, rather that in early or late adolescence, because children in middle adolescence are prone to the problems of peer pressure, and the fear of peer rejection are greatest at this stage.

Also discussed is the way children who are aggressive or non-aggressive perceive themselves. Children who are aggressive generally underestimate their level of aggressiveness, while children who are not aggressive tend to overestimate their aggression. It is also suggested that the way that an individual views himself and his aggressive tendencies may be relevant to that individual�s position in the peer group. It seems that the lower an individual is in his particular peer group, the higher his Level of aggression, whereas an individual with high social status seems to be less aggressive.

Gender differences were also examined in this study. Boys generally tend to be more aggressive than girls. This may have something to do with the fact that boys seem to revolve in larger social circles than girls. Girls tend to have a few very close friends, whereas boys have a much larger peer group in which to gain acceptance.

As a community within itself, school is where children spend a significant proportion of their time. School staff and the surrounding community at large are legally and morally accountable for student safety. It has been surmised that violence in the schools is largely a reflection of the community. Students who demonstrate violent behavior in school appear to frequently be the same students who exhibit behavior problems in their community.

A publication sponsored by the US Department of Education (1998) on �Bullying� report that bullying is very common among school children. In fact, a study of secondary students report over 76 percent had been a victim, while 88 percent have observed others being bullied and 14 percent reported severe reactions to abuse. Of 6,500 elementary students surveyed, one in four had been bullied in the 3 months prior to survey.

Research has provided much information concerning the relationship between aggression in children, peer relationships, social acceptance, and identification of early predictors of childhood aggression. These study help practitioners to better understand the cause and effect of Violence in our communities and schools. As violence in our schools becomes more pervasive, effective programs must be developed to remediate the problem areas of concern. To assure that these programs are effective, studies are being done on their effectiveness.

One such article by Frey (2000) reports on a program which applies this knowledge and attempts to remediate problem behaviors. Second Step: Preventing Aggression by Promoting Social Competence describes an intervention program that is being used extensively in the United States and Canada. The program utilized a whole-school environment, in which training is provided for school staff and parents, and addresses social problems and promotes positive social behaviors. Lessons, teacher training, teacher modeling, coaching, instruction in the classroom and student participation in decision making, are used to introduce and develop the three major areas of social competency: empathy, problem solving and anger management.

In addition to a school-wide commitment, families are also targeted. Although children may exhibit pro-social skills during school hours, reinforcement is necessary in the home in order for the program to be entirely successful.

Frey notes that the research proves that social skills can be learned and that social. The Program has been proven effective in reducing aggressive behavior, while simultaneously increasing pro-social actions. Physical aggression was significantly reduced in children who had participated in the program.

Another such program is presented in a study conducted by Nelson, which showed that Effective Behavioral Support (EBS) made significant difference in subjects. EBS is also a school wide approach that focuses on increasing development and pro-social behaviors to achieve socially important behavior change across all school environments in order to address Childhood challenging behaviors. It is a proactive school wide discipline approach, which integrates two key ideas. First, that all personnel working with students at school and community members understand the school�s behavioral expectations, and provides consistent reinforcers. Secondly, that all students know the expectations and have the prerequisite skills to meet these expectations in a predictable environment. Intervention and support for students is an important component and is present across all environments including classrooms, common areas, and across the school wide setting. Behavioral expectations are defined, taught, acknowledged, and behavioral errors are corrected proactively.

In conclusion, research has provided practitioners with the understanding of predictors of childhood aggression and the correlations between aggression in children, peer relationships, and social acceptance. Social acceptance and social competence seem to be ruling factors in the study of aggression. Peer influence has a great deal to do with a child�s tendency toward aggressive behavior. Children need to be instructed on how to react in certain situations, without reverting to aggressive behavior. Schools, families, and peers should work together in order to make this happen. Children do not need to be exposed on a regular basis to violent entertainment media; they do not need to be exposed to dysfunction in the home; and they do not need to be subjected to abuse in a school setting. Our children will be this country�s future, and as such, they need to be taught and molded in the way we would like our future generation to become. Today�s society will be responsible either for the progression or the detriment of this country, and for this reason, children need to realize that they are loved, accepted, and respected. Childhood Aggression 12

The Second Step program and Effective Behavioral Support program seems to be two effective ways to intervene in anti-social behaviors in order to curb aggressive tendencies. These programs teach adolescents to handle situations in a manner, which does not promote aggressive behavior.

In a society that seems to becoming more violent, all schools must have some type of program to deal with aggression-related issues. Programs will continue to be developed, implemented, and evaluated to assure that the problems within our schools are addressed. Further research is necessary to assure an increase in the efficacy of the programs and those already in use.

References

Anderson, C. A. (2002)Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology. Retrieved March 14,2003,http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0961/2002 _Annual /83789639/p1/article.jhtml?term=Human+aggression.

Frey, K. S. (2000). Second Step: Preventing aggression by promoting social competence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Retrieved March 14, 2003, from http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m/0FCB/2_8/62804298/p1/article.jhtml? term=social+skills+training.

Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L. (2002). Aggression problem-solving strategies, aggressive behavior,and social acceptance in early and late adolescence. Journal of the Youth and Adolescence, 31, 279. Retrieved February 2, 2002, from University of Louisiana at Monroe Health Reference Center-Academic database.

Ladd, G. (1999). Peer relationships and social competence during early and middle childhood. Annual Review of Psychology. Retrieved March 14, 2003, from http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0961/1999_Annual/54442303/p1/article.jhtml? term=peer+assisted+learning

Learning Disorders Online (1998) Preventing Bullying - A Manual for Schools and Communities Bullying: Peer Abuse in Schools. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. Available: http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/social_skills/preventing_bullying.html Lewin, L., Davis, B., & Hops, H.(1999). Childhood social predictors of adolescent antisocial behavior: Gender differences in predictive accuracy and efficacy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Retrieved March 14, 2003, from http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/ m0902/4_27/60596079/p11/article.jhtml?term=childhood+social+preditors+of+ adolescent+antisocial+behavior

Miller-Johnson, S., Coie, J., Maurmary-Gremaud, A. Bierman, K. (June 2002). Peer rejection and aggression and early starter models of conduct disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Retrieved March 11, 2003, from http://www.find articles.com/cf/0/PI/search.jhtml?magR= all+magazines&key= peer+rejections +and+aggression

Nelson J. R, 2002. Maximizing student learning: the effects of a comprehensive school-based program for preventing problem behaviors. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Retrieved on March 22, 2003, http://www.findarticles.com/ cf_0/m0FCB/3_10/90924932/p1/article.jhtml.

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