CHAPTER 8 - COGNITION AND LANGUAGE

Cognitive Psychology – the study of mental processes by which the information humans receive from their environment is modified, made meaningful, stored, retrieved, used, and communicated to others.

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL














Reaction Time – time elapsing between the presentation of a stimulus and the appearance of an overt response

* Factors affecting Reaction Time:

* Complexity - 



* Stimulus-response compatibility – 



* Expectancy –



* Speed-accuracy tradeoff


o Faster response =

o Slower response =



INGREDIENTS OF THOUGHT – HOW IS INFORMATION MENTALLY REPRESENTED?

* Cognitive map –


o Rectangular bias -


* Concept Schemas
  
o Formal – 


o Natural – 


* Representing Concepts

o Schemas –


o Scripts –


* Propositions and Mental Models

o Propositions – 


o Mental models -  



REASONING

Formal Reasoning – process of following set of rigorous procedures for reaching valid conclusions

* Algorithms – methods that always produce a correct solution to a problem, if a solution exists

* Rules of logic – set of statements (called premises) that provide a formula for drawing valid conclusions about the world

* Syllogisms

o Logical arguments containing 2 or more premises and a conclusion
o The conclusion is an inference based on the premises and on rules of logic
       Ex:      Premise 1 – People who study hard do well in this course.
       Premise 2 – You have studied hard in this course.
       Conclusion – you will do well in this course.


Informal Reasoning - assess credibility of conclusion based on evidence available to support it

* Heuristics – 

       
o Anchoring –



o Representativeness – 



o Availability – 



PROBLEM SOLVING

* Means-ends analysis (Decomposition) –


* Work backward – 


* Analogies –


* Incubation – 



Obstacles to Problem Solving

* Multiple Hypotheses – Which to test first?  Which to neglect?



o Availability heuristic –


* Mental Set – 


o Functional fixedness –



* Confirmation Bias – 



* Ignoring Negative Evidence –



DECISION MAKING – MANY DECISIONS REQUIRE CONSIDERABLE TIME, PLANNING, AND MENTAL EFFORT

* Evaluating Options – 


* Comparing Attributes – 


o Utility – give weight or personal value to attributes


* Estimating Probabilities – uncertainty and risk


Decision Making Flaws and Biases

* Loss Aversion –  “Losses Loom Larger Than Gains”


o Two biases – 

* overestimate rare probabilities –


* underestimate frequent probabilities –


* Gambler’s Fallacy – 



* Overconfidence –



Naturalistic Decision Making

* Time and resource constraints


* Use previous experiences or schemas


* Situational awareness – 



LANGUAGE – PRIMARY MEANS THROUGH WHICH WE COMMUNICATE OUR THOUGHTS TO OTHERS

Elements

* Phoneme – smallest unit of sound that ___________ meaning of speech
       


* Morpheme – the smallest unit of language that has ______________



* Syntax – set of grammatical rules


Good syntax =  The girls in class want to play football with the boys.

       Bad syntax =  The girls in class want to with the boys play football.


* Semantics – set of rules that govern meaning of words and sentences


 Good semantics = Appropriate measures must be taken immediately.

         Bad Semantics = Appropriate measures jingle all the way.
 



Structure of Language

* Surface Structure –




* Deep Structure – 




Development of Language

* Babbling - 


* One-word stage – 


* Telegraphic speech – 


o 3 word sentences (still telegraphic) – 


* Complex sentences - 



How is Language Acquired?

* Conditioning and imitation


* Language Acquisition Device – allows children to gather rules about language


* Limited by cognitive ability or skills


o Critical period



ADDITIONAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES

* Define evoked brain potential. Discuss the use of evoked brain potential in the study of mental chronometry. (see Evoked Brain Potentials)

* Describe neuroimaging techniques and how they are useful in studying information-processing. (see Neuroimaging)

* Explain why an expert is better at solving problems. Explain why experts use chunking more efficiently than novices do. Discuss the dangers of being an expert when solving problems. (see Building Problem-Solving Skills)

* Define artificial intelligence, symbolic reasoning, and neural networks. Describe how expert systems can be used. (see Problem Solving by Computer)

* Discuss the role of top-down processing, context, scripts, conventions, and nonverbal cues in the comprehension of language. (see Perceiving Words and Sentences)

* Discuss the relationship among language, culture, and perception. (see Culture, Language, and Thought)