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Recommendations (Return to Home Page)Tourism Impact and Trail-use Carrying Capacity This report presents compelling evidence that certain species of mammals and amphibians are strongly influenced by the presence of tourists and trail infrastructure in their habitat. It is still to be seen whether certain bird species will also prove to be influenced in similar ways, although it is very likely that this will be the case. However, we are only able to speculate at this stage regarding the principal ecological mechanisms underlying the impact without more thorough investigations, although it is likely that a variety of factors are playing a role, such as: 1) timidness and a propensity to flee at the presence of humans, particularly for those species which have experienced hunting pressure; 2) habituation and intrinsic ecological resistance to disturbance; 3) variations in predation pressure; 4) inter-specific competition for resources; and 5) changes in the micro-structure of the habitat which either improves or diminishes the successful search for prey, for herpetofauna species. Some of these impacted species, particularly mammals, are positively influenced by tourism, although it would be wrong to conclude that this is a good thing and should be encouraged. When ever the balance in the abundance within and between species begins to change from that which is normal the long-term repercussions for the habitat and the structure of the vegetation could be serious, as the reproductive fitness of many species of tree are tightly linked to animal pollinators and dispersers. If the variations between tourist and control areas, in terms of the abundance of wildlife, are to be minimised then a prudent first step would be to reduce trail-use intensity in those lodges where there is a marked discrepancy between T and C. Chapter 3 discussed trail-use carrying capacity for mammals, and suggests a level around 696 people per year would be appropriate. We advice that trail-use intensity should be capped at this average figure at all lodges for the time being and that an Adaptive Traffic Management Strategy be implemented thereafter to adjust this figure up or down as appropriate. Adaptive management is thought by many as a suitable method for addressing even small scale issues such as tourism impact (Johnson 1999)(see below). Adaptive Traffic Management Strategy We envisage that such a strategy would entail a more or less continuous monitoring program of indicator species with a system of experimental negative feedback loops affecting traffic. The wildlife monitoring methodology would proceed in a similar, or though more simplified, fashion to that illustrated in the mammal chapter. The parameters under continuous study would be traffic and the abundance of the five mammal indicator species. The required field work could be undertaken by lodge staff, and/or park guards and/or third parties, in all cases having previously received the required training. Abundance results from 2-month sample periods would be analysed against previous periods in a comparative fashion, using data from this investigation where appropriate. After every such 2-month period, traffic would be maintained, reduced or increased in accordance with the desired trend, i.e. a reduction in the difference in abundance between T and C to insignificant levels. At lodges where controls are currently lacking, additional investigation would be required. In this fashion traffic will be more directly linked to the capacity of the wildlife to support the presence of tourists. In many cases the recommended level of traffic that we state in this investigation (696 people) would require many lodges to alter their current trail-use patterns. A number of options are available to them and not necessarily mutually exclusive, including 1) alternating use between different trails on a temporal and/or even seasonal level; 2) expanding the trail network or implementing new trails in otherwise un-visited areas; 3) reducing noise by reducing group sizes and improving group management through improved guide training; 4) providing more extensive nocturnal trail excursions thus reducing diurnal excursions; and 5) options such as implementing canopy platforms/walkways and hides in the near vicinity of the lodges (i.e. within 200 m) thus providing alternative attractions to customary forest excursions. These points are discussed in more depth below. Continued Wildlife Monitoring We would like to take this opportunity to impress upon lodge administrations and INRENA the benefits of continuing a comprehensive process of wildlife monitoring at these and other lodges, at least for the more easily identifiable species and more especially those identified as impact indicators. Over an extended period of time such monitoring will be able to indicate the status and health of local wildlife populations and would additionally provide an insight into the habits of species on a temporal scale, and will highlight favoured areas for conservation and for viewing, around each lodge. All of which would shed light on the status of the wildlife around each lodge and would improve encounter predictability in time and space thus improving the number of times tourists can successfully observe wildlife. However, in any monitoring system it is imperative that the observer(s) be consistent in terms of the methodology used and ideally should receive adequate training in the collection of data and the maintenance of databases. Furthermore, the importance of negative data, where a sample reveals no wildlife encounters, is vitally important and should always be recorded. New Trails In the process of analysing the need for a new trail it is advisable to weigh up all the pros and cons in advance. It is particularly important to note that physical damage, to the herbaceous and shrub layers in particular, will be an important consideration (Mieczkowski 1995, Hunter and Green 1995), which could affect the regeneration capabilities of understorey vegetation on a localised level. Furthermore, issues such as control of access and ease of management, which are in turn associated with the types of other forest users in the area and topography, etc. have to be considered. In areas near permanent settlements the issue of opening up new trails should be discussed with the local inhabitants first, in order to reach agreement on rights of way and compensation if required, as it is imperative that these new trails are not used indiscriminately for hunting or impede the development of local peoples. When implementing a new trail extreme care should be taken first to fully reconnoitre all possible routes and secondly to pay close attention to topography and soil conditions. Wet, potentially boggy, areas should be avoided at all costs unless elevated walkways or bridges are to be built and maintained. Cutting the trail should clear only the absolute minimum of vegetation (maximum width 1m), tree saplings more than 2m in height should be left standing and only lower branches pruned. Where possible trails should be cut in straight-line sections, to avoid unnecessary clearance of vegetation and to increase the chances of observing terrestrial mammals and birds as they cross or follow the trail. However, where topography is steep trails should follow contours in order to reduce the effects of erosion. Most lodges in Tambopata have 1 – 3 principal attractions, for example an ox-bow lake, canopy platform, or clay-lick, with one or two trails leading to and from them. When an expansion of the trail network is required we do not recommend that further trails are cut to these same attractions as the separation distance between these new trails and the older ones will be insignificant to reduce the effects of traffic. What is required are trails in new areas, at a distance of at least 2 km from existing ones, which lead either to newly identified end point attractions, where these are available and have been granted by the relevant authorities for recreational use, or be simple circular forest routes providing access to a greater variety of interesting habitats. Trail Maintenance Close attention to trail maintenance on a regular basis will reduce the chances of long-term problems. Clearing of trails should be undertaken after every major storm event, using manual equipment such as machetes, band saws and axes to reduce noise pollution. Chainsaws should not be used as the noise may scare away some species. This will prevent the formation of trail off-shoots which quickly form around fallen vegetation and will thus reduce the amount of vegetation destroyed. When clearing tree bowls which have fallen across the trail the true direction of the trail should be maintained which will provide for greater opportunities to observe species which congregate in such disturbed areas, such as poison dart frogs. Where trail erosion is high and the formation of excessively muddy conditions is rapid, which is currently common during the rainy season in all lodges, one of several options are available. These include 1) ameliorating the existing surface with porous materials, 2) building some form of elevated walkway, or 3) refraining from using the trail until conditions improve. An effective and sensitive means of improving the surface is the application of gravel, if available in nearby rivers, as is currently the practice at the TRC, or in the absence of gravel thick wood chippings or similar materials such as Brazil-nut husks would suffice if reapplied on a yearly basis. On no account should berms be constructed which form ditches as this will affect natural drainage patterns and will affect the rooting systems of nearby vegetation. Standing ponds of water in trails attract breeding amphibians whose breeding success is severely altered by people constantly disturbing them. Such ponds should be filled in immediately, as a short term measure, and one or other of the above precautionary measures taken in the longer term. When planning a raised walkway care should be taken to identify sources of appropriate material, which should ideally not be derived from the area in question particularly if it entails the felling of mature fruit trees. It is important to take note that intentional felling of canopy trees for construction material will alter an areas canopy cover and fruit resources, which in turn will reduce mammal and bird populations over time and should be avoided at all costs. Canopy Platforms and Hides The majority of tourists who completed the questionnaires agree that canopy platforms and hides would provide a further attraction and a viable alternative mechanism for observing wildlife, and up to 84% of visitors would use one if available. Such static attractions, if sited relatively near to a lodge (within 200 m) could also help to reduce traffic by providing an alternative to a long walk in the forest, particularly for older people (50+) who are common visitors to Tambopata at present. The major preoccupation amongst administrators with canopy platforms is undoubtedly the issue of safety. However, there are numerous arquitecturally and ecologically safe designs and modern materials for constructing platforms, although an initial expense is inevitable as the expertise and materials are currently not commonly found in Peru. EcoAmazon�a currently manages two canopy platforms. However, we unfortunately find the design highly unsuitable in terms of ecology and safety, as there is direct evidence that the construction of the platforms is affecting the health of the host trees, due to the many hundreds of nails that have been driven into the trunks, and the maintenance and safety measures are of an inadequate standard. We recommend that MITINCI and INRENA undertake an independent evaluation of this site and provide the necessary guidelines to the lodge administration in order to remedy the situation. Information relating to the construction of canopy platforms, tree houses, and specialist construction firms and individuals, is widely available on the internet. http://www.tou.com/host/jake/treehouse.html http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues97/aug97/treehouses.html http://www.geocities.com/Yosemite/Gorge/5980/index.html http://www.btinternet.com/~fulton/damage.htm http://www.btinternet.com/~fulton/building.htm [email protected] (Mr. Reno Taini) Increased Protection for Threatened Species and Communities The forest immediately around some lodges harbour very rare and endangered species. Opportunities exists to conserve these on a local basis and provide alternative specialist limited attractions, although ignorance could lead to their local extermination! The forests around EcoAmazon�a were found to be particularly rich and complex in terms of avifauna, particularly the community associated with flooded forests. The area is also home to the near-threatened Conioptilon mcilhennyi which has been recorded in very few other locations. We recommend that the lodge administration and/or INRENA promotes an in-depth study of the status and breeding habits of this and other rare species at EcoAmazon�a and that discussions are implemented by both sides in order to incorporate part, if not all, of the forest around the lodge into the national protected area network. After consultation with specialists in the conservation of threatened bird species, the lodge administration should set aside preferred habitats for these rare species, as areas off limits to tourism, although one or two well managed sites with appropriate viewing facilities could be implemented for those specialist tourists interested in observing rare bird species. In the immediate vicinity of the Cusco Amaz�nico Pueblo Hotel there are at least two breeding pairs of a globally threatened species, Formicarius rufifrons. As an immediate measure to help protect this local breeding population an urgent study of the home range, feeding and breeding ecology of this species is required. There should be an immediate halt to disruptive activities, such as the cutting of large trees and undergrowth, in a radius of 200 m around the lodge until foraging and breeding areas are identified. The lodge should then take measures to protect these key areas from destruction and monitor the population at intervals. Other rare species such as Propyrrhura couloni and C. mcilhennyi are also infrequent visitors. As above, the lodge administration should also seek advice from specialists in the conservation of threatened bird species, and devise appropriate viewing facilities and a localised management plan in order to allow observation of these rare birds by specialist tourists, who as a rule would pay well to view them. The floodplain forest around Sachavacayoc, which is primarily restricted to the area south of the Tambopata river (see Satellite Images), is regarded as physically and floristically mature, indeed most of it was classed as Old Floodplain Forest or Type F. The forest contains a high abundance of mature fruiting tree species as well as patchily distributed stands of bamboo both in the understorey and in large canopy openings. The resulting avifauna diversity is high and the resident bird community consists of many of the large canopy frugivores such as parrots, macaws and toucans, which are threatened over most of their range. In addition it should be remembered that these bird groups are important tourist attractions. Mammal species diversity has been significantly affected by hunting in and around the Sachavacayoc area although those species little affected by this pressure are relatively common and have contributed to a high mammal biomass when compared to other lodges located near permanent settlements. The area is not significantly different from other lodges in terms of the diversity of herpetofauna. The current conservation value of the floodplain forest in this area in terms of the avifauna community, and the potential value of the area for the in situ conservation of large mammals should be taken into account and stricter protection of parts of this forest should be seriously considered, and a special "zone of conservation interest" developed and worked towards with the input of all stakeholders; INRENA, lodge administrators, and the local inhabitants that use the natural resources in this area. Lodges as Refuges for Wildlife We have presented evidence that tourism has the potential, over an extended period of time and where agreements are reached with local inhabitants regarding access to the forest, to conserve local populations of large mammals and large birds such as cracids (Guans), which are frequently over-hunted in many riverine areas of Amazonia. In the case of the Explorers’ Inn a non-formal agreement between the lodge and neighbouring settlements, which has significantly restricted access of local people to the forest visited by tourists, has resulted in a more stable community structure and diversity, although overall mammal biomass is lower than would be found in more isolated locations, likely a result of over-hunting of those species with large home ranges such as spider monkeys, white-lipped peccaries, tapir, etc. which tend to wander outside the semi-protected status of the forest immediately around the lodge and trail system. However, where no formal or informal agreements exist between lodges and neighbouring communities regarding access to the forest and use of resources then the effects of over-hunting can be severe. Furthermore, we have shown that some species equate tourists with hunters which exacerbates the situation and reduces the abundance of these species even further, especially in areas of forest visited frequently by tourists. When large mammals disappear from an area the smaller species, such as Tamarins, Squirrel Monkeys and rodents, tend to increase as predation and inter-specific competition for fruit and other resources declines. This is the scenario currently observed at Cusco Amaz�nico and will become more evident at Sachavacayoc as time wears on. Only when lodges take a more active role in discussing issues, pertaining to access and hunting rights with local inhabitants (in areas as far away as 10 km from a lodge), and agreements are reached which are mutually beneficial will hunted species begin to recover. Quantity versus Quality of the Wildlife Attraction A large number of small mammals at some lodges, a result of both over-hunting of larger competitor species, reduced abundance of predators, and the greater resilience of smaller species to disturbance, will increase the success rate of tourists sighting mammals during their stay, however the quality of these sightings on average will be low. The vast majority of mammals (approx. 65%) that tourists would observe if they visited a lodge in Tambopata would be restricted to only three species; southern amazon red squirrel, brown agouti and the saddleback tamarin. Only the latter species is of much interest to tourists, the other two are but glorified rats to a tourist, solitary, shy and generally difficult to see, whereas tamarins are a gregarious and inquisitive species to which most tourists can relate. This may explain why 33% of tourists questioned expressed their dissatisfaction with regards to the mammals they were able to observe. Wildlife Specialisation at each Lodge As mentioned earlier, each lodge varies in terms of the wildlife community they potentially offer to visiting tourists. At Cusco Amaz�nico for example the commonest primate, in terms of group encounters per km, is the saddleback tamarin (0.30 grps/km walked) and the most distinguished rare bird is the Rufous-fronted antthrush. At the Tambopata Research Center by contrast the brown capuchin (0.17 grps/km walked) is the commonest primate, as well as bamboo bird specialists and large parrots, frequently sought after by birdwatchers, are likely important tourist resources. The marketing of tourist lodges based on the wildlife resources of the area is not a new idea, however few lodges provide any detailed information to prospective tourists or travel agents regarding the status of their resident wildlife populations and potential encounter probabilities of species of specialist interest. Information from this report and from a program of continued monitoring could help provide this information. Tour Guides Guides, provided by the lodges, should be trained in the general ecology of the wildlife groups in the vicinity of the lodge. They should strive to know more intimately the home ranges of specific animals or groups nearest the lodges, those most likely to have become habituated to the presence of tourists, in order to better predict diurnal and seasonal behaviour to increase encounter frequency if tourists do not want to walk far. Although it is stressed that breeding individuals should be left well alone at all times. The lodges should recognise the observation and identification abilities of local peoples and endeavour to employ those locals willing to work in the lodge, particularly during the high season. However, it is important that sufficient training is provided and that observation etiquette is maintained, namely that on encountering animals all efforts should be made to maintain silence and not to call-in individuals. The most appropriate people for this type of seasonal job would be hunters. If they can be convinced, through appropriate incentives, this too may reduce hunting pressure in the area and lead to a resurgence in some populations. Feeding Wildlife and the role of Enrichment Planting We strongly recommend that animals are not actively fed by the lodge as this will tend to lead to dependency and a degree of unsustainability. The case of organic waste is discussed below. If lodges want to attract birds and mammals to the forest immediately neighbouring the lodge then we recommend that a system of enrichment planting is undertaken, which includes the planting of native fruiting and flowering plants immediately surrounding the lodge. Non native plants should be avoided as their consumption would over time alter the ecology of the animal species and might upset the balance of plant species in the local forest habitat. Attention to this should be paid by the lodge administrators of Cusco Amaz�nico and Explorers’ Inn in particular. A number of plants would be ideal and include the following genera: Inga (Pacay, Shimbillo), Ficus (Oje, Matapalo), Salacia, Manilkara (Sapote), Pseudolmedia (Chimicua), Bactris (Pihuayo), Mauritia (Aguaje) – for streamside areas, and Heliconia. Waste management As a general rule all types of waste are potentially damaging for wildlife and should be disposed of in well maintained, covered pits and cesspools or removed from the area to Puerto Maldonado. All existing pits should be constructed in such a way as to minimise the chances of wildlife gaining access, else those species that do, particularly rodents, will overpopulate the local area thus inadvertently affecting the local ecology of the area and the appearance of the lodge. Non of the lodges studied managed their waste in an optimal manner with regards to the safety of local wildlife. Organic edible kitchen waste should be ideally managed for the production of compost. There exist simple and efficient methods of converting such waste to compost and the lodges should seriously consider investing in this "green" alternative to fattening vultures and rats. For lodges interested in recycling human waste they should investigate the feasibility of implementing composting toilets [www.compostingtoilet.com] The Upper Tambopata River During our studies at the Tambopata Research Center and our journeys too and from this site it is clearly evident that the upper reaches of the Tambopata river, beyond the Malinowski river, is an ecologically important or "source" area for the majority of persecuted species and those sensitive to the presence of people. Strict tourism management policies should be initiated in this area and careful consideration is given to the siting of new lodges where authorisation has been granted. Although not a variable that was investigated on this occasion it is evident from other studies (Groom 1990, Groom et al. 1991, Yoon et al. 1994) that boat traffic also has serious negative implications on riverine wildlife in Madre de Dios and should also be an integral part of any tourism management strategy for the area. Conservation Workshops and Species Monitoring: The Role of INRENA In 1998 the co-ordinators of Proyecto Tambopata participated in a series of workshops regarding the ecology and conservation of regional lowland forest flora and fauna, organised by the office of fauna of INRENA. We feel strongly that this type of workshop and the organisational role provided by INRENA should continue and that workshops should be hosted in outlying communities as well as in the town of Puerto Maldonado. We have a few recommendations in this respect: that core funding for this sort of activity is sought from the local and international NGO network, and that more importance is given to discussing the conservation issues relating to those habitat restricted and globally threatened species that are present in Tambopata. For example: bamboo specialist bird species. These are the most habitat-restricted species in Tambopata, some are globally threatened, while others are endemic to south-western Amazonia, such as: the Rufous-headed Woodpecker, Bamboo Antshrike, Manu Antbird, White-cheeked Tody Tyrant and the Peruvian Recurvebill. All these species would appeal to local residents due to their colouration, a particular anatomical feature or a behavioural attribute. Further campaign would concern the most threatened forest species, which are also globally threatened and restricted to this region of Amazonia. Such species include Rufous-fronted Antthrush, Blue-headed Macaw, Harpy Eagle, Black-faced Cotinga, Scarlet-hooded Barbet, and it would also have to include the two most threatened species in the Tavara foothills; Tinamus osgoodi (the Black Tinamou) and Pauxi unicornis (Southern helmeted Currasow). The question of conserving large mammals should also be discussed. Furthermore, we call on INRENA to begin or oversee a comprehensive wildlife monitoring program with yearly analysis and local publication of results, in order to gauge the health and status of wild populations. Their numerous park guard stations and personnel are ideally located to monitor both virgin areas of forest and areas under increasing pressure from human encroachment. Tourist Questionnaires Most tourists on leaving a lodge are presented with questionnaires to gauge opinion on lodge services, etc. It would be advantageous as a management tool for lodges to also keep a record of opinion concerning the local wildlife, perhaps using some of our own questions to base their own systems. This would go a long way towards attaining an integral approach to tourism management. |