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Conclusions
EcoAmazonía Lodge This lodge was found to contain a full complement of flooded forest indicator species (Table 5.10). Populations estimated for the four species appear comparable to those in floodplain forest habitat of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, in the Manu National Park (Terborgh et al. 1990). The reason that we were unable to calculate absolute densities for the other species was not because they were rare or endangered rather that they were relatively difficult to sample using the methodologies implemented here. The forest around this lodge was found to be the most disturbed of the five lodges surveyed. However, this disturbance is a natural phenomenon and not linked to tourism. Type B forest has a naturally high turnover of trees and a more open canopy than other forest types. This lodge has great potential as a "birdwatchers" destination and harbours rare and endangered species, and the aguajals and marsh habitats strongly warrant further investigation. Care should be taken however not to further disturb this forest through the felling of canopy trees, something that has been observed from time to time especially when the lodge and trail infrastructure is refurbished. The issue of pets is particularly worrying at this lodge and numerous deaths from mismanagement have occurred. There is reason to believe that this lodge is actively employed in fomenting the trade in wildlife as pets. Cusco Amazónico Pueblo Hotel This lodge will continue to experience problems in the amount of birdlife it can offer tourists. Due to its location, relatively close to Puerto Maldonado and nearby rural settlements, populations of large bird species are threatened from general disturbance and particularly hunting pressure. The lodge has the lowest complement of indicator species for both lowland and flooded forests (Tables 5.11 and 5.12). The species present appear to be those that tolerate a range of canopy cover vegetation density brought about by local disturbance. Any further forms of habitat disturbance (particularly the felling of large trees for lodge reconstruction) that causes a shift in the density of canopy vegetation cover or the height of the canopy cover would probably lead to the further demise of the forest bird community at this lodge, primarily the floodplain forest community. Population densities of most of the species at this lodge are low, a result of the disturbed nature of the forest, although it could also be a manifestation of the relatively small area of forest sampled. Exactly how much of the variance in abundance is attributable to such habitat disturbance has still to be investigated. The lodge administration have also failed to take the necessary measures to protect the most endangered bird species in the lowlands of Madre de Dios, the globally threatened species Formicarius rufifrons (see Species Accounts). It would be in the interest of the lodge to conserve this species and perhaps increase their market share of tourists by advertising their conservation campaign. Other rare species that visit the lodge from time to time are Propyrrhura couloni and C. mcilhennyi (see Species Accounts), with population density of the Cotinga species higher than that calculated for type B forest. In order to try and attract more tourists to the lodge, the administration have also taken up the example of ECO, in creating a zoo (although a relatively bad one) out of a neighbouring island. Individuals of Mitu tuberosa were caged on the island during 1998. We refer the owners and managers of this lodge to read the results of the tourist questionnaire (Chapter 6.0) which clearly demonstrate that tourists are largely unhappy with this practice. Explorers’ Inn Bird sightings have been documented here for at least the last twenty years. Although this has been an important site for research in the tropics during this time (Foster et al. 1994) most of the bird studies have not been scientifically based. Our study shows that the terra firme sandy-clay forest here is fairly disturbed. The absence of a few of the lowland forest indicator species is probably attributed to this. However, despite these absentees, there is a large proportion of indicator species present (Table 5.13) and the status of the bird community in this area appears to be good. The story is not so good for the resident parrot species as mature canopy fruiting tree species are rarer (see later). Although not part of this study, the bamboo bird community has suffered in recent times, but this has been due to the natural reproductive cycle of the Guadua bamboo thickets (see earlier) and not related to anthropomorphic variables in any way. The lodge appears keen on displaying pet birds, particularly macaws and some mammals, although many tourists when questioned feel that this is not called for. Sachavacayoc The results of the habitat survey show the forests at this site to be one of the least naturally disturbed of the five locations. This site also holds populations of almost all of the habitat restricted bamboo indicator species and the lowland forest indicator bird species, including globally threatened species (Tables 5.14 and 5.16). The bird communities here represent a complete ecological assemblage, emphasising the nature of the primary forest habitat that dominates the area. Large macaws frequently use these forests for roosting and feeding (see section on Canopy Frugivores) alongside many other parrot and toucan species. Furthermore, at Lago Sachavacayoc there is an important nesting colony of approximately 60-80 pairs of Ara ararauna. SACHA also harbours one of the known nesting sites for the near-threatened Harpia harpyja and careful consideration to protect these individuals from tourism development should be considered. Given the above information and the threats to floodplain forests throughout Amazonia, this site warrents the highest conservation priority. Our biggest concern in the SACHA area is the possible rise in habitat alteration caused by the activity of numerous lodges using the area simultaneously, at present 4 lodges are known to use the trail system and the Sachavaca Inn and the Tambopata Jungle Lodge have implemented independent access trails to the main trail network. These trails are at places wider than would be recommended. Lodges that use the same area of forest should enter into detailed discussions regarding trail-management issues. Tambopata Research Centre Our research, along with that of Foster et al. (1994) and Kratter (1995b) shows that this site has a complete ecological assemblage of birds in primary forest and bamboo habitats, containing most of the globally threatened species of the region. Furthermore, it is located alongside of one of the largest clay licks in the world (Foster et al. 1994) used by parrots, macaws, and cracids on a daily basis. The lodge administration has a moral imperative to conserve this area and should enter into detailed discussions with INRENA and all other lodge users regarding how best to manage this important ecological resource of high tourism value. The forest habitat around the TRC and the clay lick should be given some form of special protected status other than that currently in place. Canopy Frugivores The few records of parrot species, particularly of the three large macaw species at both CAPH and EI are a cause for concern. These two lodges are currently not good places to observe these types of birds. These two lodges have been established for over 20 years and no doubt that access into the forest interior by other people, has been facilitated to varying degrees via the trail network, particularly in the case of the CAPH. Information provided by local residents, and the data collected during the mammal study, has revealed that the amount of hunting of certain bird species at CAPH has been ‘considerable’. Hunting in the forest around EI is also thought to have been present in the past, and indeed the lodge was originally a hunting destination for a short time after it was first built in the late 1970s, although at present hunting pressure on the wildlife is low and large cracids are relatively common as a consequence (see Chapter 3.0). Munn (1992) has shown that large macaw species avoid areas of permanent human settlement and his study revealed that the closer one surveys to the town of Puerto Maldonado the fewer individuals were seen. We present no evidence of impact by human traffic, around the two oldest lodges over the past 20 years, on the records of parrot species during this time, because this data simply does not exist. However, given the high degree of human settlement and activity in and around these two lodges, and that large macaw species in particular avoid human settlements, the circumstantial evidence is very persuasive. At SACHA there is also a relatively high level of permanent settlement nearby. The difference between this site and the EI, which is only 10 km to the east, is the presence of large areas of mature floodplain forest which has been little disturbed at SACHA. This appears to be an important factor, macaws appear not to be able to tolerate the more disturbed forests of EI and CAPH. Forest Classification The Discriminant Function Analysis results were used to classify the similarity of the forest types based on the variables recorded, and not to distinguish between the more primary and disturbed forests. Of all five locations, the forest types at SACHA, TRC and CAPH appear to be the most similar. Based on the largely structural habitat variables studied we were effectively surveying three types of forest. Each of these three lodges had a component of old floodplain forest (Type F), in the case of SACHA virtually the whole area studied was dominated by this forest type. However, when one examines the abundance of the five commonest fruiting tree genera, results show that all three floodplain forests are fairly dissimilar (Kirkby and Cornejo, Chapter 3.0). Floristically, TRC has the most distinct forest type, while the seasonally flooded swamp/old floodplain forest mosaic of CAPH being most similar to the pure seasonally flooded swamp forest of ECO, both situated on the banks of the Madre de Dios river. This relationship is possibly caused by the presence of more of the type E forest component at TRC, and type B in the forest mosaics at CAPH and ECO. Identification of forest types should also be a factor of tree architecture. We have shown that it is a rapid and reasonably accurate method of assessing primary forest areas from disturbed forest types. It has also proved to be successful in Dipterocarpaceae forests in south-east Asia (Jones et al. 1995; Marsden and Jones, 1997). |