Eugene de Sousa: Alexander in India
Dr. Eugene de Sousa, Ancient India: Upto 1000 A.D. Pages 118-125.; © Mrs. Benny de Sousa. Published by Manan Prakashan. Prescribed as History Textbook #3 for the S.Y.B.A. by the University of Bombay or by the Universities Grant Commission of the Indian Union.
Persian And Greek Invasions
As the interior of India had been experiencing a process of political unification under the imperial control of Magadha during the sixth century B.C., her undefended and insecure frontiers on the north-west which was divided into a number of petty independent states became an easy prey to foreign invasions. The first who attempted to penetrate India though the north-west were the Persians. Later the Greeks, under their great conquering hero, Alexander of Macedonia invaded the north-west frontier. Both the Persian and Greek invasions, though did not lead to the the establishment of a permanent political powere deeper into northern India, the frontier regions of the north-west came under their political control for some time. These foreign invasions exposed the vulnerability of the north-west regions to outside incusions. Thse invasions, though polically and militaryly had local significance, their impact in other fields was quite far reaching and lasting.
1. The Persian Invasion
There had been relations between India and old Persia (Iran) since a long time. The Aryan who settled in India belonged to the same racial stock which had first entered Persia. However, there is no definite information regarding teh contact between the two during the later Vedic age. The Jataka stories refer to trade relations between India and Persia. According to some scholars the Avestan passages indicate a political control that was established by old Persia on northern India in pre-Achaemenian period. However, we find no supporting evidence of this political connection.
Darius (588-530 B.C.): The narrative of the Persian invasion of India is found in a number of inscriptions left by Achaemenian emperors. These accounts are supplemented by casual references by the classical writers such as Herodotus, Ctesias, Xenophon, Strabo and Arrian. According to a generally accepted opinion by many scholars, the first political contact between Persia and India was established during the reign of Emperor Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty. Within a short period of eleven years Cyrus established a vast empire by conquering Anatolia and Babylonia as far as the frontiers of Egypt and advanced up to the Kabul Valley. According to Pliny, Cyrus destroyed the famous city of Kapisa in the Ghorband and Panjshir valley. According to Arrain Indians between the river Indus and Cophen (Kabul) paid tribute to Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus brought under his rule Bactrians and Indian, and extened his sway up to the Erythrean sea, i.e. the Indian Ocean. Xenophon also makes a reference to an Indian ruler sending an embassy of money to Cyrus, probably in payment of tribute. On the basis of these references it has been believed that Cyrus conquered the frontier regions between India and Persia. According to Ctesias, Cyrus died of a wound inflicted in battle by 'an Indian'; a battle which "the Indians were fighting on the side of Derbikes whom they supplied with elephants." These Derbikes might have been a frontier tribe.
Darius I (522-486 B.C.): The son and successor of Cyrus, Cambyses (530-522 B.C.) could not pay any attention towards India as he was too much pre-occupied by rebellions in his own empire. However, his son Darius I made decisive conquests in India. His own inscriptions provide us with the information regarding the extent of the Persian dominion in India. The inscriptions at Persopolis and at Naksh-I-Rustam mention Hi(n)du or the northern Punjab as part of his empire. Thus, Darius must have conquered this part of India by about 518 B.C. Herodotus makes a reference to a naval expedition sent by Darius under Scylax to expore the Indus river. Herodotus states that India constituted the twentieth satrapa (province) of the Persian Empire. It is difficult to determine the exact extent of the Persian control over India. But with reasonable precision it may be assumed that the Persian possessions in India comprised the valley of the Indus from Kalabagh to the sea, including the whole of Sind, and a considerable portion of the Punjab east of the Indus.
Xerxes (468-465 B.C.): Darius I was succeeded by Xerxes. He continued his hold over the Indian provinces. This is proved by the fact that he secured the services of Gandharians and 'Indians' to fight his battles (Marathon and Thermopylae) against the Greeks. This was the first instance when an Indian expeditionary force fought on the soil of Europe. Herodotus gives an interesting account of the India soldiers and their equipment. According to him the Indians, clad in garments made of cotton, carried bows of cane and arrows of cane, the latter tipped with iron, which were used for long range combat. Besides, infantry, India also supplied Xerxes with cavalry and chariots, riding horses, and also horses and wild asses to draw the chariots, together with very large number of dogs. The cavalry had the same equipment as the infantry.
The Persian hold over these Indian regions lasted till 330 B.C. Darius III, the last of the Achaemenian rulers sought reinforcements from India to check the advance of Alexander of Macedonia. According to Arrian, one Indian contingent fought at Gaugamela under the satrap of Bactria, along with the Bactrians, while another, the Indian mountaineers from the Punjab fought under the satrap of Arachosia. India also sent a small force of elephants. The Persian Empire under the Achaemenian dynasty came to an end in 330 B.C. when Alexander defeated Darius III in the battle of Arbela.
Impact of the Persian Invasion:
- Political Impact: The Persian invasion and the hold of the Persians in the north-western frontier regions of India did not affect Indian politics in any significant way. It only exposed the weakness of the Indian defense in that region and paved the way for the conquest of Alexander. However, the satrapal system of administration introduced by the Persians in their Indian provinces served as a model to later dynasties especially the Sakas and the Kushanas.
- Development of Trade: Though the Persian invasion did not affect India politically to a great extent, the contact between the Indians and the Persians that continued even after the end of the Achaemenian Empire had certain tangible impact. These contacts between Persia na dIndia through both the sea and the land led to the establishment of trade relations between the two countries. The Persian rulers did much to promote geographical exploration and promote trade and commerce. The exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea by Scylax opened a new water-route. When the western and north-western India formed parts of the Persian Empire which extened up to Asia Minor in the west, Indian trade naturally got a fresh impetus. Indian ivory and teak were popular in the Persian markets. Darius used them in the construction of his palace. THis information is found in the Susa inscription of Darius.
- Cultural Contact: The trade relation indiretly brought about cultural contact between India and Persia. Even before the invasion of Alexander, the Persians became catalysts between the Indian and Greek cultures. The Greek philosophers came in contact with Indian philosophy long before the invasion of Alexander.
- Kharoshti Script: The Armaic form of writing which the Persians introduced in the north-western India after their conquest, gradually developed into the Kharoshti script. All the Ashokan rock inscriptions in the nort-west India were engraved in the Kharoshti script. The idea of inscribing ethical exhortations on rocks in the form of royal proclamations might have been borrowed from Persia. Certain resemblances have been discovered between the Achaemenid inscriptions and those of Ashoka. They both have the same style, especially in the contruction of the opening sentence.
- Influence on Coinage: the Persian silver coins were in circulation in India. This affected Indian coinage. The Persian coins were known for their refined minting and elegant looks. The Indian rulers adopted similar techniques to mint their coins on the Persian model.
- Impact on Art: According to Megasthenes, the Greek Ambassador at the court of Chandragupta, the Mauryan ruler adopted certain Persian ceremonies and rituals. The Mauryan art was influenced by the Persian art to some extent. Traces of the Persian influence can be seen in the Mauryan sculptures and in the Ashokan pillars. The polish of the Mauryan pillars manifests the Persian influence. The Persian masonry had this characteristic of high polish. According to H.G. Rawlinson the architecture of the period of Ashoka was completely influenced by Persian architecture. Dr. V.A. Smith also claims that the architecture and the Ashokan inscriptions were completey influenced by the Persian aft and the bells inscribed on the columns of Ashoka are models of the Persian art.
2. The Greek Invasion
India once fell victim to another foreign invasion, nearly two centuries after Cyrus. The second foreign invasion from the European continent was led by the Macedonian king and conqueror, Alexander the Great.
Alexander was born in 356 B.C. at Pella in Macedonia. From age thirteen to sixteen, he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. He ascended the throne of Macedonia in 336 B.C.
Invasion of Persia: After consolidating his authority in Greece, Alexander set forth for the conquest of the world. Within four years of accession, Alexander conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Babylonia and Persia. The Achaemenian king of Persia, Darius III was defeated by Alexander in the battle of Arbela (333 B.C.) Following the defeat of the Persian king, Alexander advanced to the Persian capital Persopolis and burnt it.
Darius' death left no obstacle to Alexander's claim to be the Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him 'lord of Asia', i.e. of thePersian Empire. From Persia, Alexander continued his advance towards the eastern and north-eastern provinces of the Persian Empire.
By the beginning of 327 B.C. Alexander had completed the conquest of eastern Persia beyond the Hindukush by overrunning Bactria and the region now known as Bhokara, as far as the Syr Daria (Jaxartes). He then returned, re-crossed teh Hindukush and advanced against India in May 327 B.C.
Invasion of India: From Nicaea, as the outpost nearest to India, Alexander sent emissaries to the king of Taxila and other princes to the west of the Indus River, informing them of his intentions and inviting them to meet him to discuss terms whcih might avoid his contemplated invasion. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, sent emissaries with costly presents to Alexander, and offered to help him provided his kingdom was not subjected to invasion. This is the first recorded instance of an Indian king proving a traitor to his country. This treachery was motivated by a petty spiriti of local hostility to his powerful neighbour Porus (Paurava), the ruler of the territory between the Jhelum and the Ravi. Porus, in an attempt to establish his supremacy in the region was pushing towards the frontiers of Taxila. In order to restrict Porus, Ambhi thought in terms of seeking the help of Alexander. Sasigupta, ruler of another frontier state also offered to cooperate with Alexander.
The Battle of Jhelum: Alexander crossed the Indus over a bridge of boats and entered Taxila in 326 B.C. He enjoyed the hospitality of Ambhi and exchanged gifts. Ambhi became an ally of Alexander and offered him a contingent of five hundred soldiers. The neighbouring rlers of Abhisara and Doxares voluntarily surrendered to Alexander. Porus refused to surrender to the Greek invader. Alexander crossed the river Jhelum. The Advance party of the army of Porus under his son was defeated by Alexander. Next day the Battle of Jhelum was fought. Porus fought bravely, and with nine wounds on his body, was led a captive before Alexander. When asked by Alexander how he should like to be treated, Porus replied, "Act as a king towards a king." Being pleased with the dignified behaviour of Porus, Alexander not only reinstated him in his kingdom but also added further territories to it. In his attitude towards Porus, Alexander showed his magnanimity and diplomacy. He knew that for his deeper advance into India he required the alliance of Porus.
After paying homage to the Greek gods by sacrifices, Alexander marched towards the east, where he encountered the opposition from the country of Glaukanikai. He took 37 of their cities. By August 326 B.C. Alexander had crossed the Ravi without much difficulty. The Kathaian people of this region were noted for their bravery. When the Kathaians lost their battle against Alexander, their women burnt themselves.
Retreat and Death: Next, Alexander was ready to cross Beaus. However, suddenly he had to put a stop to his career of conquests and return. The chief reason for this turn of events was the reluctance of his soldiers to continue their march further. They were worn out with years of hard campaigning and were eager to return to their homeland. They felt that there was no limit to the ambition of their adventurous king. Besides they were terrified with the thought of facing the more powerful Magadhan Empire of the Nandas. Alexander made a last attempt to persuade his soldiers to contine their march towards the east. But sensing their mutinous temperament, Alexander decided to put an end to his conquests and return home. In order to mark the farthest point of his conquests in the east, Alexander built twelve altars of stone in the name of the Greek gods and performed sacrifices so that he could return home safely. On his way back home, Alexander died at Babylon in 323 B.C.
Effects of the Greek Invasion:
- Political Effects: Alexander wanted to permanently annex the conquered regions of northwest India to his vast empire. He appointed Porus as king of all the land between the Jhelum and Beas. He also brought about a reconciliation between Porus and Ambhi. The latter was placed in charge of regions between Indus and Jhelum. He divided Indian conquests into five provinces, each under a governor. He left Greek garrisons at various cities. Philippos, one of Alexander's generals, was appointed as satrap (governor) of the lands west of teh Indus up to the lower Kabul valley. Alexander constructed docks and harbours at the mouth of the Indus. He tried to explore land and sea routes in order to enable him to keep a close watch over his Indian possessions. However, following the death of Alexander, the Greek control over India weakened. The Greek commanders left India with their soldiers. Indian rulers who were subjugated by Alexander declared their independence.
- Cultural Influence: Alexander was one of the great city-builders of all time together with an unknown number of military colonies. All these cities were officially named Alexandria which were settled with Greek soldiers, traders, natives and a few Macedonians. The cities became the centres of Greek culture. The Greek influence was to be felt in the Greco-Buddhist schools of art in north-western regions of India during later centuries. This form of art came to be known as the Gandhara art.
- Foundation of the Mauryan Empire: The invasions of Alexander had direct and immediate result on the course of Indian history. Alexander, in the course of his conquests had seriously crippled the mutually warring kingdoms and tribes in the Punjab and Sind. This political vacuum was filled by the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta made this region an integral part of the Mauryan Empire.
- Helped in Fixing Chronology: One of the important historical gains due to Alexander's invasion of India in 326 B.C. was that it enabled to fix the subsequent historical events in India. The clearly dated records of Alexander's Indian campaign left by his contemporaries held to build Indian chronology for later political events on a definite basis.
- Improvement in Communication: Some historians are of the opinion that Alexander's invasion led to the opening of new lines of communication with the West. New routes for trade and maritime enterprise brought India and the West closer to each other. This facilitated not only commercial contact, but cultural exchange as well. According to Strabo the Oxus (Amu Daria) became a link in an important chain along which the Indian goods were carried to the European countries by way of the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea.
- Influence on Coinage: The Indian coinage was also influenced by the Greek coinage. The coins of the Indo-Greek rulers which were discovered in Taxila, replaced the older Indian punch-marked and ill-shaped coins. The later coins of India were minted on well-shaped Greek models.
- Impact on Astronomy: Indian astronomy was greatly influenced by the Greek astronomy. According to Varahamitra, the great Indian astronomer of the Gupta period, "The Greeks are barbarians, but the science of astronomy has been developed by them and for this they must be revered like the gods."
- Indian Influence on the Greeks: There was a reverse flow of influence from India to Greece as a result of Alexander's invasion. The Greeks learnt a good deal of the sciences, arts, philosophy, mathematics, and medicine from India due to the contact between the two civilizations. Indian philosophy greatly influenced Greek way of thinking and culture. A number of Indians went to Greece and Asia Minor and became the messengers of Indian culture in those regions.