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| THIS IS AN ESSAY IN PROGRESS |
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| "Most ancient Chinese philosophical schools had a theory about names and actuality. In the Confucian school,however, it assumes special importance because its focus is not... utilitarian as in the Legalist School, but ethical. With the ethical interest predominant, this is the nearest the ancient Confucianists came to a logical theory, except Hsun Tzu... the most logical of all ancient Confucianists" - Wing Tsit-Chan, A SOURCE BOOK IN CHINESE PHILOSOPHY |
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THE PPHILOSOPHY OF XUNTZE: |
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Xuntze, or Hsun Tzu, not to be confused with the more popular Sun Tzu who wrote the martial arts classic THE ART OF WAR [see below], was a Chinese philosopher of the Confucian school. Like Mencius, he was born in the so-called Warring States period which saw the near complete disintegration of the Chou dynasty as the various states attacked and conquered or destroyed one another. Mencius (or Mangtze) predated Xun and differed with him on numerous essential points. Mencius was known for his idealism and Xuntze for his naturalism, giving rise to comparisons, by modern scholars, with the somewhat contemporaneous Plato and Aristotle. The two men became the founders of two occasionally antagonistic schools of Confucianism, with Xun's influence predominating throughout the Han dynasty, which lasted for about 500 years, with one interregnum around the time of the Roman Emperor Augustus' death. Subsequent to the end of the Han, the Mencian school began to become more influential among Confucianists; although Xuntze is again becoming a popular philosopher among the Chinese1. In addition, their adherents faced a number of other philosophical schools, including the Taoists, Moists and Legalists. In fact, two of Xun's students, Han Feitze and Li Si, merged some aspects of their teacher's philosophy with the legalism which played such an important role in the harsh rule of the Qin dynasty immediately preceding the Han.
Confucius was, of course, the first Confucian. Yet all that we have from that worthy sage is a compilation titled THE ANALECTS. This work is largely composed of remembered sessions between the master and his various students. Unfortunately, unlike the systematic treatise of Xun or the lengthy discussions of Mencius, this work tends to be aphoristic and eclectic. Like Xun, Confucius appears to shy away from metaphysics, focusing on the present world2. Confucius advocated government, but when it came to state power, Confucius clearly believed that government was limited to doing that which was beneficial to its citizens: "there is a saying amongst men: 'I do not at all enjoy being a ruler, except for the fact that no one goes against what I say.' If what he says is good and no one goes against him, good. But if what he says is not good and no one goes against him, then is this not almost a case of a saying leading the state to ruin?"3
The Mandate of Heaven is a key concept in Confucianism. Along with the abovementioned statements of Confucius, the concept is considered in the important classic called THE GREAT LEARNING often viewed as an antecedent of the Xun Confucians, although the views there do not seem to conflict with the Mencian school in substance, even if it does so in style. THE GREAT LEARNING tells us "rulers of states should never be careless. If they deviate from the correct path, they will be cast away by the world... 'It is not easy to keep the Mandate of Heaven.'4 [B]y having the support of the people, they have their countries, and by losing the support of the people, they lose their countries... [i]f the ruler's words are uttered in an evil way, the same words will be uttered back to him in an evil way; and if he acquires wealth in an evil way, it will be taken away from him in an evil way. 'The Mandate of Heaven is not fixed or unchangeable.'5 The good ruler gets it and the bad ruler loses it." Xun, while somewhat less direct in his states about the Mandate, clearly supported the concept. In his final paragraphs on the chapter regarding the powers and limitations of a ruler, he clearly annunciates the Mandate: "If a ruler is frivolous and coasrse in his behavior, hesitant and suspicious in attending to affairs, selects men for office because they flatter and are glib, and in his treatment of the common people is paracious and grasping, then he will soon find himself in peril. If a ruler is arrogant and cruel in his behavior, attends to affairs in an irrational and perverse manner, selects and promotes men who are insidious and full of hidden schemes, and in his treatment of the common people is quick to exploit their strength and endanger their lives but slow to reward their labors and accomplishments, loves to exact taxes and duties but neglects the state of agriculture, then he will surely face destruction... To be a king or to be destroyed, to control others or be controlled by them - the two conditions are far apart indeed!" Yet, the Mandate of Heaven has little to do with heaven, for if one engages in those actions beneficial to the state and the people "Heaven cannot make you poor..." and "Heaven cannot bring you with misfortune," but if you engage in actions counter to the well-being of the state and people, "Heaven cannot make you rich..." and "Heaven cannot give you good fortune... you must not curse Heaven, for it is merely the natural result of your own actions." Xun does not, of course, only encourage rulers to be benevolent and liberal in his rules for the sake of utility, for he tells us that the marks of superior valor are "... to refuse to bow before the ruler of a disordered age, to refuse to follow the customs of the people of a disordered age," and "if the world does not recognize you, to stand alone and without fear." Thus, rebellion against both bad rulers and bad customs is considered admirable whereas "to ignore right and wrong, just and unjust" is the mark of inferior valor. |
Xun admits that the ruler can decide, himself, whether he will be benevolent or a despot, but, as has been stated above, points out that the latter role will end in the ruler's destruction. He then gives some advise on the actions of a true ruler. First, the ruler must create general laws, which are applied via "precedent and analogy" without "favoritism and partisan feeling." As long, however, as these rules are applied without favoritism, he advocates a policy of limiting the size of houses, music, clothes, and the possible number of servants. Second, only capable, intelligent and virtuous men should hold office under the ruler. Third, the ruler shall set tax rates, and establish fishing and hunting seasons. Outside of this, the ruler is to leave matters to his ministers, each of whom has specific duties and limits.
In the section which translator Burton Watson calls Debating Military Affairs, Xunzi presents himself in a disagreement with an advocate of the famed military experts, Sun Tzu and Wu Tzu. When military man suggests stealth and deception as being of great importance in military matters, Xunzi strongly disagrees. The philosopher states that the most important military tactic for a leader is to have the support of the common people. He then places extreme limits on when one may go to war, aside from the issue of self-defense. In fact, the only valid basis is a just war. "The righteous man... takes up arms in order to put an end to violence and to do away with harm, not in order to contend with others for spoil."
NOTES: 1"[B]ecause of his naturalism, his realism, his emphasis on logic, his belief in progress, his stress on law, and his sound criticisms of the various philosophical schools, he has a special attraction for the modern Chinese." See Wing-Tsit Chan, Naturalistic Confucianism: Hsun Tzu, A SOURCE BOOK IN CHINESE PHILOSOPHY. 2"The topics the Master did not speak of were prodigies, force,disorder and gods," THE ANALECTS,VII:21; see, also, V:13. 3THE ANALECTS, VIII:15. This appears to have been a reflection on the Confucian doctrine called the "MANDATE OF HEAVEN," discussed below. 4THE GREAT LEARNING is quoting from one of the Chinese classics, the BOOK OF ODES. 5THE GREAT LEARNING is quoting from the Book of Documents, also known as the Book of History - the Shu Jing. 6By "men of breeding" and "the worthy," Xun does not refer to the nobility. He also states "[a]lthough a man may be the descendant of kings, dukes, or high court ministers, if he cannot adhere to ritual principles, he should be ranked among the commoners. Although a man may be the descendant of commoners, if he has acquired learning, is upright in conduct, and can adhere to ritual principles, he should be promoted to the post of prime minister or high court official." |