Inside the Mosque >< Outside the Mosque

Anthropology of Muslim Prayer across the Indian Ocean

[workshop - Maison Française - Oxford 21-22/3/98]

This paper represents part of a broader study of the Southeast Asian Islamic scene. The principal focus of the broader study falls on patterns of transmission of Islamic thought from other parts of the Muslim World to the Malay World. The final chapter of this work examines a program of controlled Islamisation of Indonesia and Malaysia conducted by the governments of both countries. This present paper will examine one instrument for that Islamisation: devotional columns in the government inspired newspaper Republika.

The 1990s have witnessed certain tactical changes by the New Order government in Indonesia with regard to Islam. With the effective circumscribing of Islam as a political force in the 1970s and 1980s, the New Order government has more recently sought to curry favour with Muslim groups through a number of initiatives. These relate to the establishment or consolidation of Islamic institutions, as well as to more self-consciously religious behaviour by Indonesian political leaders.

In 1989 the Indonesian Government passed the Religious Judicature Act, which served to enhance the influence of Islamic courts throughout Indonesia. The Act effectively represented a statement of recognition by the Government of the courts' place in the infrastructure of state; moreover, it provided a mechanism for ongoing state support for the Islamic courts.1 This Act extended the areas in which the Islamic courts have jurisdiction to include matters of inheritance, in addition to marriage and divorce which were already in the domain of these courts. Moreover, the Act freed the Islamic courts from certain constraints remaining from the colonial era, such as the previous requirement for Islamic court decisions to require ratification from a civil court.2

In 1991 the Government facilitated the establishment of Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim Indonesia (ICMI), the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals. A minister in the New Order government considered close to President Suharto, Habibie, became the chairman of ICMI, and in 1993 several members of the new cabinet also became active in ICMI.

Also significant as instruments for the Government's encouragement of a measure of Islamisation were electronic and print media. There was a gradual increase of Islamic programs on the government-controlled television stations in Indonesia. Moreover, the daily newspaper Republika was established with approval from the government and quickly became an important forum for the discussion of wide-ranging Muslim issues.

Further on the institutional front, another event which pointed to government efforts to win support from Muslim groups was the establishment of a Muslim bank. This reflected developments in a number of overseas Muslim communities, including Malaysia.

Also during this period, President Suharto made a very widely publicised pilgrimage to the Islamic holy sites in the Arabian Peninsula. This move may well have reflected an attempt to curry favour and build bridges with Muslim groups, and to reflect an increasing mood of Islamic religiosity sweeping Indonesia and Muslim communities throughout the world.

Several factors may be responsible for this new direction in the Indonesian government policy towards Islam. Political power-broking may have played its part. President Suharto had encountered opposition from his erstwhile ally, the military, over his attempt to install Admiral Sudarmono, who was disliked by the military hierarchy, as Vice President. The Suharto government's attempt to build bridges with Muslim groups in the 1990s may have represented an insurance policy against a deterioration in the relationship with the military.3 But other factors can be gleaned from observing developments in Indonesia's neighbourhood. The above measures are reminiscent of Malaysian government strategies during the 1980s and the 1990s to win the middle ground among the Muslim populace, and it is quite possible that the Suharto government had decided to take a leaf from Malaysian Prime Minister Mahatir's book. Like the Malaysian government, the Suharto government may well have felt the need to increase its Islamic profile in order to forestall growth in radical Muslim sentiment which was flourishing elsewhere in the Muslim world, including South East Asia. In this context, it is important to resist the temptation to see measures such as the Religious Judicature Act in simplistic terms, as part of a policy to institute Islamic Law throughout Indonesia. Rather, such measures seem to have been taken for strategic reasons, summarised well by Cammack when he says "Rather than competing with Islam for legislative authority, the government is seeking to appropriate the power to declare Islamic law. Instead of defeating Islam, the regime has decided to confiscate it."4

Meanwhile, the established actors on the Islamic stage in Indonesia continued to play their part. The Nahdatul Ulama (NU), freed of the baggage of membership of a political party consisting of disparate elements after its withdrawal from the United Development Party in the early 1980s, continued to function as an advocate for Islamic scholarly conservatism, though under the leadership of Abdurrahman Wahid the NU expanded its base of support into new areas through dynamic and innovative policies. The Muhammadiyah continued to successfully promote reformist Islamic policies, in contrast with the more conservative NU. One of the principal reasons for the continued success and survival of the Muhammadiyah is that it has always been able to distance itself from an overt political role and as a result it has remained as one of the most prominent mass organisations in Indonesia up to the present day.5

Islamic leaders in Indonesia make considerable use of devotional columns in the news media - newspapers, magazines and popular journals - for the dissemination of Islamic teaching. These columns are typically pithy and are presented in bite-size pieces so that the audience will be able to read and digest the particular lesson being presented without requiring a considerable commitment in their time, energy or attention.

Republika

An example of such a column occurs in the newspaper Republika, an organ of the media which has featured prominently in the Indonesian government's program to increase the profile of Islam in Indonesian society during the 1990s. Republika was established with the blessings of the Government of Indonesia as part of its Islamisation drive, designed to capture a wave of increased Muslim religiosity among the population at large in response to domestic and international trends.

The devotional column in question, entitled Hikmah, is written by a range of authors, both male and female, and typically consists of two basic parts. Firstly, a message or moral is introduced to the audience via a story or reference to Islamic scripture. The use of narrative as a tool for theological exposition in this context has been very popular throughout the history of Southeast Asian Islam. The second part of the column is then devoted to an interpretation of the story presented, or the scripture referred to, in the light of modern day exigencies and contexts. In this way, readers are provided with practical guidance to help them address the day to day issues which they encounter in normal life.

A representative example occurred in the column appearing in the issue of Republika on 25 April 1996.6 The first part of the column was devoted to the story of Hagar and Ishmael and the appearance of the Well of Zamzam.7 Various references to the Qur'an are made during the column to place the story within its scriptural context. The second part of the column is devoted to an interpretation of the story for today. A strong moral is enunciated explicitly, presenting the lesson that believers should not give up hope, no matter how adverse the circumstances they find themselves in. God owns all and only God can give livelihood to his servants, and if the believer follows the guidance provided by the Qur'an, he will be rewarded as Hagar and Ishmael were.

Hikmah columns in Republika were surveyed over a two-year period as part of an ongoing research project. A number of key themes were addressed by the Hikmah columns examined. They are discussed in the following paragraphs, and followed by an analysis as to how these columns fit in with Government priorities.

It was noticeable in the columns examined that far from Sufism being portrayed as passé or unIslamic in any way, strong Sufi resonances were regularly present.

In the Hikmah column of 17 May 19968 devoted to istiqamah (integrity/uprightness in faith), A. Ilyas Ismail begins by quoting a Hadith from Sahih Muslim, thus setting the necessary scriptural foundations for his theological exposition. The Hadith in question is

(Say "I believe in Allah", and then act with integrity)

Then Ismail turns his attention to scholarly interpretation to clarify for his readers the significance of the Hadith in question. After making a passing reference to the strictly orthodox Maliki Qadi 'Iyad b. Musa (1088-1149),9 who relates this Hadith to Q41:30 (thus affirming its authority), Ismail devotes his principal attention to statements of the anti-Hanafi Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri (986-1072), author of the great mystical work of exegesis Lata'if al-isharat.10 Ismail quotes this Sufi master, who above all sought to reconcile mystical practice with the principles of the shari`a, as making a number of statements as follows:

* rewards await those possessing istiqamah

* punishment awaits those who do not possess this quality

* for Sufis true holiness equals istiqamah, rather than empty symbolism, which can lead astray

* istiqamah, only possessed by the truly God-fearing, can lead to the realm of God (which has distinct Sufi resonance of communion with God)

In order to provide his readers with practical guidelines for the implementation of scriptural injunctions in their daily lives, Ismail then sets out four conditions for attaining proper istiqamah, and points to Q46:13-14 in support :

1. Adherence to monotheism

2. Adherence to Islamic Law

3. Sincerity in works/practice of the faith

4. Struggle for truth in both easy and difficulty situations

In a similar vein, Syaefudin Simon11 affirms Sufism as a valid point of reference in the Hikmah column which he wrote. He quotes a simple Sufi poem at the outset, which depicts a Sufi musing on the complexity of seemingly simple human actions. The writer then develops this theme, showing that science proves that seemingly simple human physical processes in fact involve a very complex interworking of multiple human parts. Having established a scientific framework, Simon adds that in observing this complexity, we can marvel at the greatness of God, who created humans in all their complexity and beauty. He then refers to Q95:4 and Q39:41 in support, and in his column he has thus interconnected Islamic scripture with modern science, and also affirmed the Sufi perspective which was presented at the outset of his column.

In another Hikmah column dating from February 1998, D. Zawawi Imron12 exhorts believing Muslims to find the energy to rise for the morning prayer. There are strong Sufi resonances in his writing style; he claims that the believer who rises for morning prayer will have a beautiful encounter with the Creator; he speaks of an "inner voice" telling the believer what he must do; and he states that morning prayer serves to cleanse "the mortal flesh through awareness of the spiritual, both exterior and interior, to become One".

Thus Sufism stands affirmed by these columns. This is not surprising, as Sufism gathers much support in modern Indonesia from more conservative elements of the population, elements which are more inclined to non-involvement in politics and to the maintenance of the status quo. In promoting such views, this government influenced newspaper is clearly attempting to woo a particular segment of the Indonesian constituency.

Throughout the columns in Hikmah, one finds frequent references to cases where the content of Islamic scripture is portrayed to be in harmony with scientific knowledge and the requirements of the modern world. This effort to affirm the link between modernity and Islam is germane to the ideas of the great fathers of 20th century Islamic modernism, Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, as well as to the doyen of pan-Islamic thinking in the late 19th century, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.13

An example of this was seen in the article by Syaefudin Simon14 referred to in the previous section. In another such case, Didin Hafidhuddin15 focuses on the close link between Islam and knowledge, and provides copious quotes from the Qur'an relating to knowledge and those who possess knowledge (Q11:14, Q39:43). In doing so, Hafidhuddin is leading up to his main point that the Islamic doctrine of Tauhid (Oneness of God, monotheism) demonstrates the unity of Islam and knowledge.

In taking this approach, Hafidhuddin is providing an essentially orthodox portrayal of the separateness of God and his creation. There is no suggestion of the immanence of God in his creation which characterises some Sufi writing. This is to be expected, given that the modernist ideology typically focused upon a transcendent deity; indeed, many modernist groups were heavily critical of Sufi teachings on the immanence of God. Here again, it seems, this column is attempting to identify with a segment of the Indonesian reading public, though a different segment than that described in the previous section.

The ultimate challenge in Hafidhuddin's article comes when he concludes that the greater one's knowledge, the greater ones awareness of Tauhid. Here again are resonances of modernist thinking, which attaches a high priority to modern education of Muslims and which has led to the development of many networks of modernist Islamic schools which taught Islamic subjects alongside secular scientific fields of study.

On a different issue yet similar tack, Rachmad Saleh16 addresses the dawn prayer and the discipline it inculcates in Muslims. He points out that at the time of the dawn prayer, people are in deep sleep; thus their natural inclination is to wish to continue sleeping. The call to prayer at this time thus forces people to struggle against their mortal natures. Moreover, according to Saleh, it provides each individual with a healthier body and spirit, as medical and psychological research shows that the body and mind are more active in the early morning, the most productive time for wide ranging activities. Thus heavily implicit in Saleh's message is the notion that Islam accords with human needs and scientific knowledge (as reflected in the research findings mentioned). Islam is again portrayed as being consistent with the modernist thought of people such as al-Afghani, Abduh, and Rida.

Also addressing the topic of the morning prayer, D. Zawawi Imron17 similarly exhorts believing Muslims to find the energy to rise in the early morning. He draws on the Hadith to cite Muhammad's call to morning prayer - thus providing the requisite scriptural authority for his sermon - and warns that "laziness and indolence will result in great [individual] loss." Thus Islam again is portrayed as relevant to modern life, because it provides a framework for hard work, diligence and commitment, from which each individual will benefit.

H. Tutty Alawiyah, 18 a female writer, concerns herself with the rights of the child in her Hikmah column. She claims that the United Nations declarations on the rights of the child and the teaching of the Qur'an are entirely consistent. In making this claim she too is affirming the belief in the relevance of the Qur'an to today's world.

The Hikmah column also sets as one of its goals the discussion of issues of daily concern which affect the masses. In this, it is casting its net as wide as possible in reaching out to its target audience. Whether it is successful in doing so is a separate question for further research, but for the purposes of this present study, there is little doubt of the ambition of the editors of Republika to reach as wide an audience as possible through its devotional column.

Some Hikmah columnists demonstrate a concern for modesty in dress, especially as it relates to women. For example, Bachrawi Sanusi19 addresses the vexed question of Islam and beauty pageants. He starts by quoting Q7:26, which states that God gave Adam clothes to cover his nakedness. Having thus set the scriptural framework, Sanusi turns his attention to the Miss Indonesia pageant, part of the Miss Universe contest. Sanusi points out what he sees as the evils of beauty pageants, and in this context mentions that foreigners are appointed to judge Indonesian contestants! Turning back to the scriptural framework defined earlier, Sanusi exhorts people to use clothes to demonstrate their piety. He presents a quote from the Hadith, and then moves from general injunctions to specific recommendations by calling for young women to wear head covering, and for men and women to be separated in swimming pools.

In a column on a related issue by Almuzzammil Y.,20 the appropriate role and behaviour of women in the modern world is addressed. According to the writer, this should be based on four model women referred to in the Qur'an; namely Maryam, Aishah, Khadijah and Fatimah. Women are exhorted to follow the four model women identified as this will make them virtuous and will help them avoid being distracted by the glamour and ways of the modern world.

Another issue of concern to vast numbers of people is the ageing process. Farid Nasution21 addresses it and the fears it holds for many people. He provides his scriptural stage at the outset, citing Q40:67 which states that God gives life to each person of varying lengths. He lists the effects of the ageing process: outward signs, physical, mental, and psychological effects. Up till this point, he has essentially painted a portrait of the very factors which many people fear. Thereafter comes the didactic element. Nasution concludes that if the ageing process is part of God's plan, why should people fear it? He quotes a Hadith in support of this line of argument, and then lends support by presenting a positive view of the rewards of old age: grandchildren, time for hobbies, time for good deeds.

Muhammad Rozi22 addresses the burning issues of wealth and poverty, which touches the felt needs of large numbers of Indonesians. He commences by introducing his moral through narrative, drawn from the writings of the Middle Eastern author Mustafa Lutfi Al-Manfaluti. A beggar is depicted as complaining of stomach pains from undereating, while a rich man complains of stomach pains from overeating. The rich man is thus portrayed as being punished by God for his greed; he is not allowed to enjoy his abundance of wealth, and is made to suffer for neglecting his duty to show concern for the poor.

Rozi relates this story to the model of Muhammad's community, referring to the Companion Hakam b. `Amr al-Ghifari, famous for his concern for the poor, and considered by many as the father of socialism. Rozi then draws links with broader Islamic doctrine, pointing to the importance of alms-giving in Islam to demonstrate that Islam is concerned for the poor. He finishes his column with a quote from Sura 107 which states that those who claim to be faithful Muslims but who ignore the poor are not truly faithful. Thus Islamic doctrine is affirmed, and his readers have been provided with guidance on the perennial issue of the presence of poverty among the masses.

On a related issue, Syaefudin Simon addresses the need for simplicity in life, and eschews ostentatious ceremonies.23 He relates the story of how Muhammad deliberately arranged for a very simple wedding ceremony for the marriage of his daughter Fatimah with Ali ibn Abi Talib. Unfortunately, states Simon, these days the young women "of the computer generation" have grand expectations about the lavishness of their wedding ceremonies. He recounts the story of a young bride-to-be who had shortly beforehand committed suicide because her father had refused to stage a lavish wedding ceremony. He exhorts his readers to understand the importance of simplicity, and cites the hadith which reports Muhammad as saying that "genuine wealth is the wealth of faith, which is reflected in an attitude of contentment." This attitude of contentment, according to Simon, results from simplicity in lifestyle.

Also concerned with daily questions posed by the masses is Emha Ainun Nadjib24, who commences by pointing out that all people have subconscious desire to be nearer to God. Nadjib makes many references to real life contexts: conversations at boxing matches, the work of journalists, and discussion of money matters. The author then points out that both small and powerful consult Sufi groups for advice regarding failures and chances of success. Nadjib concludes that God alone has the means to overcome the darkness that is enveloping the world.

H. Tutty Alawiyah, 25 whose column on the rights of the child was introduced in the preceding section, quotes Q8:28 to demonstrate that children are provided to parents to test their commitment to the holistic development (in body, mind and spirit) of their children. Thus the universal questions which surround the issue of parenting are addressed within an Islamic framework.

In one of his columns, D. Zawawi Imron26 stresses the importance of pronouncing the words "God is Great". By doing so believers will be reminded of their own smallness compared to God, which will in turn discourage arrogance and pride among them.

Thus the above selection of articles have addressed matters of daily concern to the Indonesian masses: dress modesty, the role of women, the ageing process, wealth and poverty, a simple lifestyle, a personal quest to know God, parenting, arrogance and pride. The writers have thus sought to educate their readers along Islamic lines, but also to reach out to the masses through their focus on matters of daily concern.

On a related note, many of the articles seek to affirm core elements of Islamic doctrine and ritual.

The two columns by Rachmad Saleh27 and D. Zawawi Imron28 which exhort believing Muslims to rise for the morning prayer are cases in point. Likewise Muhammad Rozi stresses the importance of alms giving. Moreover, Fauzul Iman29 decries the fact that in modern times often religious events are only carried out for ceremonial reasons. He cites the example of millions of Muslims who participate in the pilgrimage, one of the five pillars of Islam, merely for personal profile and a sense of personal pride. Iman writes that it would be better for funds spent by such pilgrims to be devoted to welfare activities.

In another column, A. Ilyas Ismail addresses the issue of the sacrifice of animals30, which is associated with the Feast of the Sacrifice during the month of pilgrimage, and its practical relevance for believers in today's world. Believers are exhorted to conduct an animal sacrifice when they have the means to do so, because it demonstrates their gratitude to God, their compassion for the underprivileged, and a sign that they will reject anything that distracts them from God's path, such as wealth, status and lusts.

Affirming the sense of the Islamic ummah - or showing greater authority to Arabic scholarship - over ethnic identity

Another issue which some of the Hikmah columns address is a proper perspective on personal identity.

Muhammad Rozi31, in his discussion of wealth and poverty referred to above, chooses to build his argumentation upon the writings of a Middle Eastern author. In doing so, he is subtly affirming a sense of the world-wide Islamic ummah, suggesting that a person's religious, rather than national, identity is where the answers to daily problems are to be found.

Moreover, many writers elect to write in a language style which makes heavy use of Arabic/Islamic loan words. The writings of D. Zawawi Imron32 and Syaefudin Simon are illustrative of this. Not only are Arab loans now widely used in Indonesian drawn upon, but other Arabic expressions which are less commonly found in common Indonesian parlance are used. Thus rather than Arabness being portrayed as foreign and irrelevant to the needs of Indonesian readers, it is presented as a vehicle for asserting the international nature of Islamic identity, which has predominance over local, national or ethnic points of identity.

On occasions the columns examined point to the Government-supported origins of this newspaper, through oblique or overt pro-Government statements.

For example, in her column concerned with the rights of the child, H. Tutty Alawiyah33 makes very respectful reference to Suharto's announcing of a new initiative designed to affirm the rights of the child. She points out that this is consistent with both United Nations and Qur'anic guidelines, and in the process serves to reinforce the efforts by President Suharto during the 1990s to project a profile of increasing Islamic religiosity.

In a similar vein, HA Yani Wahid34 refers to the social and economic crisis in Indonesia resulting from the currency turmoil in Asian markets in late 1997 and early 1998, and decries the fact that Suharto has been deserted by many. Wahid suggests that Suharto has been made a scapegoat for problems which were caused by others and were beyond his control.

Developing further the idea of scapegoating others for one's own excesses, Ahmad Hatta writes35 about the different responses by Adam and Satan to God's punishment. Satan refused to acknowledge that he was at fault, and accused God, whereas when Adam sinned36 (with Eve) he quickly engaged in self-criticism and repented. Q7:23 is cited in support. Hatta turns to the modern context by opining that Muslims today should first address factors internal to themselves in addressing problems and sin. Far to often, according to Hatta, humans take Satan's attitude to sinning; namely blaming others who become the scapegoats for our sins. He concludes by arguing that such an attitude bounces back negatively on the sinner, as occurred with Satan. Such a discussion during a period of intense anti-Government recriminations due to economic crisis may well reflect a subtle campaign by pro-government writers to deflect criticism back on to others.37

In his column on Islam and beauty pageants discussed previously, Bachrawi Sanusi38 refers to President's Suharto's decision to suspend beauty pageants, and claims that most Indonesians were happy with this decision. This writer is thus seeking to affirm Government claims that the Suharto regime carried mass support, contrary to charges from certain quarters.

In his paper for this conference, Andrew Beatty eloquently identifies the nature of the gulf between santri and Javanist approaches to Islam, or between what many see as the divide between orthodoxy and heterodoxy. Though it is not always easy to crystallise such systems of categorisation, and such terms beg many questions, it is nevertheless clear that there are diverse Islamic audiences in Indonesia, including Java, and the people involved conceive of distinctions between orthodoxy and heterodoxy.

Non-political Muslim bodies seek to define their constituency in particularist terms, to harness a particular group or groups from these diverse audiences. Thus the NU tends to represent conservative, traditionalist elements inclined towards taqlid, or acceptance of the authority of the traditional Islamic scholarly hierarchy. In contrast, the Muhammadiyyah by its nature, policies and history is reformist, and its constituency is inclined to a wider practice of ijtihad, namely opening the Islamic source scriptures up to continuing scrutiny to take account of the contemporary world and its realities. More specialised bodies, such as the Majelis Ulama Indonesia, share much with the NU, but target a much more specific constituency; namely the traditionalist Islamic scholars themselves.

Governments cannot afford to be so particularist, especially one such as the New Order government in Indonesia which has faced increasing popular agitation for change during the last decade or more. Such a government needs to reinvent itself, to have a "born again" experience, as it were, in order to continue to attract new support through developing new policies. Instruments such as devotional columns in Republika provide an opportunity for this redefinition of self by the Government of Indonesia, to catch the wave of increased religiosity but also to target as wide an audience as possible.

So it is not surprising that the columns examined reflect an aim to appeal to as wide-ranging an audience as possible. A traditionalist conservative audience has been targeted through the use of various motifs:

* Sufi references;

* pressing issues with a conservative flavour, such as women's modesty in dress, and modelling the early wives of Prophet for women today;

* addressing issues relevant to an older, more conservative audience, such as fears of ageing;

* affirming core elements of Islamic doctrine

Likewise, a modernist/reformist audience has been targeted by addressing a different range of themes:

* portraying the consistency between Islam and modern scientific knowledge

* using female writers

* Affirming the sense of identity with the world-wide ummah

Thus the Government, through these columns, has sought to appeal to two primary wings of Indonesian Islam. On one plane this is represented by the conservative NU, which has a membership of around 38 million people, and the reformist Muhammadiyah, which has a membership of around 28 million.39 On another, it is represented by the santri versus Javanist streams.

But on a broader level, many of the issues addressed by the columns examined reflect the Government's desire to strike a chord with large numbers of Indonesian Muslims who may not see themselves as linked with a particular organisation or religious stream. Hence, many of the columns address ordinary matters of day to day concern, which are not specific to any one group. The government is thus seeking to cast its net as far and wide as possible.

In the final analysis, the Government's broader Islamisation efforts reflect its wish to harness increasing Islamic consciousness for its own ends. This applies most immediately to its brittle popularity. If it can co-ordinate a controlled Islamisation program, perhaps it will be able to garner lost support. Only time will tell whether this policy will prove successful.

1 Cammack 1997:143.

2 Ibid.

3 Budiman 1995.

4 Cammack 1997:168.

5 Johns 1987:207.

6 A. Yani Wahid, "Shafa dan Marwah", Republika, 25 April 1996.

7 The details of this story are articulated in extra-Qur'anic textual materials in Islam - the commentaries and Stories of the Prophets - based closely upon the Biblical account in Genesis XXI with the variation that in the Islamic account, Abraham does not merely send Hagar and Ishmael into the desert but accompanies them as far as Mecca and leaves them there [Paret 1978:185].

8 A. Ilyas Ismail, "Istiqamah", Republika, 17 May 1996.

9 Talbi 1978:290.

10 Halm 1986:526-527.

11 Syaefudin Simon, "Puisi Sang Sufi", Republika, 19 February 1998.

12 D. Zawawi Imron, "Bangun Pagi", Republika, 25 February 1998.

13 See, for example, Abduh 1966:31ff.

14 Syaefudin Simon, "Puisi Sang Sufi", Republika, 19 February 1998.

15 Didin Hafidhuddin, "Prinsip Tauhid", Republika, 14 June 1996.

16 Rachmad Saleh, "Bila Fajar Menyingsing", Republika, 9 October 1996.

17 D. Zawawi Imron, "Bangun Pagi", Republika, 25 February 1998.

18 H. Tutty Alawiyah, "Alquran dan HAM Anak", Republika, 2 December 1996.

19 Bachrawi Sanusi, "Aurat, Ratu, dan Perenang", Republika, 31 May 1996.

20 Almuzzammil Y., "Wanita Teladan", Republika, 23 April 1996.

21 Farid Nasution, "Tua itu Indah", Republika, June 1996.

22 Muhammad Rozi, "Mencuri Hak Si Miskin", Republika, 24 June 1996.

23 Syaefudin Simon, "Pengantin Sederhana", Republika, 5 March 1998.

24 Emha Ainun Nadjib, "Hujan Deras dan Soekarno Muda", Republika, 14 July 1996.

25 H. Tutty Alawiyah, "Alquran dan HAM Anak", Republika, 2 December 1996.

26 D. Zawawi Imron, "Meresapi Takbir", Republika, 12 February 1998.

27 Rachmad Saleh, "Bila Fajar Menyingsing", Republika, 9 October 1996.

28 D. Zawawi Imron, "Bangun Pagi", Republika, 25 February 1998.

29 Fauzul Iman, "Skala Prioritas Beramal", Republika, 30 April 1997.

30 A. Ilyas Ismail, "Makna Kurban", Republika, 24 April 1996.

31 Muhammad Rozi, "Mencuri Hak Si Miskin", Republika, 24 June 1996.

32 D. Zawawi Imron, "Bangun Pagi", Republika, 25 February 1998.

33 H. Tutty Alawiyah, "Alquran dan HAM Anak", Republika, 2 December 1996.

34 HA Yani Wahid, "Akhlak Mulia", Republika, 18 February 1998.

35 Ahmad Hatta, "Otokritik", 26 February 1998.

36 This is a significant issue in itself, as Islamic orthodox belief holds to prophetic sinlessness.

37 Or it may equally reflect an even more subtle criticism of Government leaders!

38 Bachrawi Sanusi, "Aurat, Ratu, dan Perenang", Republika, 31 May 1996.

39 Sydney Morning Herald, January 8, 1998.

This paper was presented at the workshop entitled Inside the Mosque >< Outside the Mosque:Anthropology of Muslim Prayer across the Indian Ocean, held at the Maison Française, Oxford, from 21-22 March 1998.