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Within the great books of the past lie many of the rules of writing etiquette and style that continues to affect writers to this day. Among the more influential are Aristotle and Longinus. These scholars of literary criticism were separated by four hundred years of learning and culture. Both students of Plato, that these influential writers differed vastly in the schools of literature they would come to foster.
Aristotle, the direct student of Plato, was an admirer of tragedy, above the epic and comedy. He held that six precepts were essential to a good tragedy, which, from greatest to least read: plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle. Aristotle felt tragedy to be �an imitation of a noble and complete action, having the proper magnitude� (46). These combined aspects created Aristotle�s idea of catharsis. This was very important to him, as he felt the redeeming purpose of tragedy was the catharsis it provided the viewer. An excellent piece to illustrate Aristotle�s ascetic opinions is Shakespeare�s Romeo and Juliet. By exploring the first two precepts completely, it becomes clear how fully Aristotle�s views translated the centuries.
First among Aristotle�s list of requisite features is plot. By �plot,� he means the play must have a definite beginning, middle, and end. This proper arrangement gave the play an order. Second in the category of plot, he expected that a play should have proper magnitude, and be neither too small nor too big. The third aspect is beauty, which is created by the presence of the first two components. Romeo and Juliet demonstrates these particularities admirably. In the beginning, Romeo is lovelorn, until he meets Juliet. This moves into the middle plot, in which they fall in love and are happily, secretly married before Romeo is banished for the killing of Tybalt. The ending concludes with Juliet�s false death, Romeo�s suicide, and finally Juliet�s suicide. The beginning does not �begin by chance, anywhere, nor end anywhere,� (47) an importance Aristotle is careful to outline. The entire story is a self-contained, whole unit that does not rely on anything but the events that take place within the space of the play. The entire debacle takes place in only a few days, and thus maintains a proper magnitude in which the audience is easily able to comprehend the events taking place on stage.
Aristotle also provides rules for the arrangement of incidents. Incidents must be reliant on one another, in both simple and complex actions. This formation due to causality is very apparent in the bold fight in the scene between Tybalt and Mercutio. In this scene, Tybalt comes to Mercutio looking for Romeo. As men of the feuding houses of Montague and Capulet, they find no courtesy with one another, and are at odds when Romeo arrives, but one hour after his secret wedding with Juliet. Tybalt is angry and does not allow Romeo to smooth over the �injuries that thou hast done me�� (123). Tybalt refers to injuries which begin at the party Romeo attends at the Capulet�s house. In this scene, Romeo�s is open to Tybalt�s ire, due to his new position as an in-law. However, he would not be constrained in the slightest, had he not gone to the party�and Tybalt would not have a quarrel with him. It is ultimately Romeo�s desire to keep the feud from boiling into violence that slays Mercutio. This simple and subtlely complex tension is reliant on previous actions, and gives the play the beauty Aristotle so admired.
Aristotle�s second main ideal for literature lies the shape of character. �Because tragedy is an imitation of the nobler sort of men it is necessary for poets to imitate good portrait painters,� he argues (53). By this, he means that while the character must be portrayed in likeness to life, a good portrait painter will also paint them as better than they are. In reading Romeo and Juliet, the impression of Shakespeare�s characters is of beautiful love and great tragedy. The characters that surround Romeo and Juliet are bursting with life and friendship. There is not a question of whether or not the characters are silly in their games of honor and dishonor, or whether Romeo should stand accused of the murder of Tybalt. To each, the roles gives them the passion and vigor to do what is �right.�
Shakespeare gives utilizes this notion of portrait painting though a careful crafting of Romeo, the protagonist of the play. Romeo, as Aristotle demands, is neither perfect in virtue or justice, and he is larger than life. As the play opens, Romeo is low and distressed by a failed love affair, the story of which the audience never is given. His friends take him to the Capulet party, and he falls instantly in love with Juliet. This particular, as discussed above, leads him to the killing of Tybalt. This very killing also satisfies Aristotle�s second and fourth principles, which is to say Romeo succumbs to a miscalculation and suffers a change of fortune from good to bad. And Romeo also enjoys great reputation and good fortune, the third rule, as the son of the Montague.
Shakespeare also employs Aristotle�s rules for general characters in the crafting of the rest of the cast (52-3). Mercutio exibits the ideal of �good� as he manifests his character though action and word in the parley just prior to his fight with Tybalt. Juliet demonstrates �appropriate� behavior and inclination to stay within social bounds during the opening sequence, in which she takes her mother�s demand for her marriage quietly. �I�ll look to like, if looking liking move;/ But no more deep will I endart mine eye/ Than your consent gives strength to fly,� Juliet says meekly (74). Throughout the dialogue concerning her marriage, she only speaks twice. Although she later becomes rather rebellious in her love affair with Romeo, she maintains a meek type of existence, declaring that if Romeo will marry her, she will follow him throughout the world.
The final rules of character can easily be proven to apply to the cast of Romeo and Juliet. The characters remain �like reality� and consistent to the roles provided to them. Romeo wears his heart on his sleeve; Mercutio plays with words and sallies. Nurse remains entirely true to her charge, while maintaining a very protective element, but pleased when Romeo offers a respectable proposal of marriage.
Shakespeare�s Romeo and Juliet fulfills Aristotle�s program for a good tragedy. As I have proven, the first two main precepts set forth by �Poetics� grant Romeo and Juliet the ancient mantle of good writing and good drama. Longinus, however, has very different rules for a good piece of literature. Amongst these rules are the forming of great conceptions, vehement and inspired language, thought, noble diction, and dignified and elevated language. He also wrote that great literature �bears a repeated examination� (74). Given this point, an excellent illustration of his precepts is �Epitaph,� by J. Tarin Towers.
�Epitaph� is a ten-line poem that represents the best of Longinus� ideals. The first rule, which is of forming great conceptions, is mainly based upon an idea that excitement of admiration is based solely on the greatness of soul implied. This is a very subjective and broad idea. Nothing in Towers� �About the Author� biography indicates greatness, at least no more than the average person. But her writing, as Longinus may be interpreted, causes esteem for the writer, her wit, and the emotion expressed. This excitement of admiration can also be fulfilled through the silence of great character. Towers gives a good impression of great character in her protagonist�s summation of her situation, which is brief and inspired.
Longinus� second concept of vehement and inspired language certainly suits �Epitaph.� When Longinus speaks of this, claiming that characters will �answer the inquiry incisively and with the utmost candor�� (94), he is opening his idea of the sublime to honest works. By honest, I mean works that do not entail vast amounts of frivolous details or useless dialogue. Later in his work, he declares openly that �brevity goes straight to the mark� (105). And as far as candor is expressed, �Epitaph� provides this as well in Towers� recitation of her relationship�s failings, writing ��Since one stiff drink can/ hold me all night long/ the way you never could;� (76). Towers acknowledges the ascetic appeal of brevity and candor, in giving the poem a short running time and filling it with honest images.
The third belief of Longinus deals with thought and expression. Longinus felt that the delivery of the speech could affect the work�s sublimity. In particular, he describes the hyperbata, or inversions. This is an important element of his argument, as he goes on to state that hyperbaton is best when it approaches nature. This leads directly into his claim that �art is perfect when it seems to be nature, and nature hits the mark when she contains art hidden within her� (95). Towers takes this literary device into account, concluding her poem �and then both of us will be happy� (76). A straight diction would read �and we will both be happy.� However, Towers� use of hyperbata concept gives the reader the sense of nature that Longinus adopted. The nature of Towers� line carries art within it.
Fourth on Longinus� list is the choice of words. He lists metaphor, homely language, and language elaboration below this topic. �Epitaph� most clearly demonstrates the first two selections. Though �Epitaph� is very short, the second stanza uses the metaphor of a drink to replace the man in the poem for support and entertainment. Homely language, however, is the clearest portion to Longinus� precepts that this poem masters. Longinus claims that homely language can lead to the sublime if saved from vulgarity by expressiveness. This claim allows Towers� poem to be given the title of expressive. Despite the �low� form of subject; namely liquor, Towers also expresses a human condition of disappointment and frustration.
The final sentiment of Longinus� sublime is that the literature should maintain energy and tension through connecting syllables. This rhythmical idea is very much given to Towers� short poem, though it does not rhyme in a classical, sonnet style. Towers� words flow together as if they grew in such a fashion. Tension is created in the first stanza, in which Towers states �Since you have spent more hours/ or days staring into your glass/ than you will ever spend/ looking into my eyes;� (76). The energy of her short, clipped sentences draws the reader through the poem quickly, without need to pause. Her poem is a complete entity.
Longinus gives the reader of his criticism, �On the Sublime,� a great deal of leeway in interpreting what he means to be �sublime.� While Towers poem fits his ideals, any number of other literature could be used in its place. Longinus leaves his argument open to the reader�s discretion. Aristotle, also growing from the precepts set forth by Plato, creates stringent rules of conduct which form a very specific type of arrangement. Yet both have been accepted as standards in the genre of literary criticism. Although in places they overlap, Aristotle and Longinus have fostered very different schools of literature. From Aristotle, drama has taken the place of tragedy, though it remains true to many of his rules. A trip through the �drama� section at Blockbuster will sponsor this point. Longinus� ideas, open-ended but very specific about brevity, use of metaphor, and the greatness of soul, fosters poetry in all its forms.
These two influential men have left a mark in literary markets through time. Their work remains current in many aspects, molding and giving texture to modern forms. And through their own standards, they have created great literature.
Works Cited
Aristotle, �Poetics,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
Longinus, �On the Sublime,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
Shakespeare, William, Romeo and Juliet, The New Cambridge Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984
Towers, J. Tarin, �Epitaph� in Sorry We�re Close. San Francisco: Manic D Press, 1999
BOTH SIDES NOW: A CRITICAL LOOK AT A POETIC SONG
When a poem grows into a song, the words no longer maintain the same context. The words are molded by the musical methods at work. Emphasis on particular words or notes can change the mood of the song entirely. The addition of music to a poem can increase the listener�s memory of the poem by the use of melody. A catching tune may stay in the listener�s mind for days, perhaps even weeks. These factors are entirely outside the realm of the poem itself, but are also part of poetry in its melodic rhythm and reading.
Critics often look at classical art when they are forming their theses, or they examine art in its pure forms. However, their discourse can provide a fascinating window into the value of art and literature which lie beyond their narrow essays. In this paper, the lyrics of the modern song �Both Sides Now,� which discusses the illusions and experiences of life, will be examined through the filters of Samuel Johnson and Friedrich Nietzsche. The aspect of its musical accompaniment will be looked at carefully in light of these critics� views. The poetry of this piece will also be looked at through the individual critical poetry standards.
�Shakespeare has united the powers of exciting laughter and sorrow not only in one mind but in one composition,� Johnson writes in a long passage about the combinations of tragic and comic scenes (227). Johnson avoids passing a value judgement on this method, though he does allow for the effectiveness of the style. �The end of poetry is to instruct by pleasing,� Johnson claims (227). He goes on to say that the combination of tragedy and comedy can instruct while it pleases, since it closely approaches the appearance real life.
Music is one of the most effective ways of conveying information. A catchy tune is easy to remember, and can be used for purely instructional purposes. In the case of Mitchell�s �Both Sides Now,� the tune carries a rhythmic melody and the words are part of the melody, not divorced from it. In a single hearing, it is possible for to the listener to absorb enough of the song to hum a few bars. Included in these bars are the words. In the repetition of song, in mind or aloud, the listener is imbedding the material into memory. The listener will think over the lyrics also, and come to understand them in terms of his or her own life, or in the case of �Both Sides Now,� in a broader social context. Though Johnson may not have personally liked lyrical music, he would have seen this connection, and approved scholastically.
The argument of the value of song brings this discourse to the claim that �Both Sides Now� holds a truth for a larger social context as well as the individual. Johnson discusses in his opening definition of poetry that �nothing can please many, and please long, but just representations of general nature� (225). The meaning intended by Johnson is fairly broad. Nature can denote huge mountains, or a small breeze. The author�s goal in composition is to �[hold] up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life� (225). Johnson clearly believes reality is necessary in proper instruction.
The lyrics of �Both Sides Now� draw directly from modern culture and nature as observed by Mitchell. The first subject, the nature of clouds, is observed first from a very fanciful perspective. The investigation then moves into the literal nature phenomenon, which is that they �block the sun/ They rain and they snow on everyone.� This move mimics a child�s discovery that clouds are not only fluffy and pretty, but have a more serious side, which cannot be altered by wishing for something else. This discovery has been echoed time and again by school children around the world.
Johnson places a great deal of value on literature. He goes so far in this to demand that �it is always the writer�s duty to make the world better� (229). These statements clarify Johnson�s views on writing, and clearly indicate the he granted the highest merit to instructional poetry. In the case of music and lyric, it is most important to look his emphasis on learning.
Mitchell�s song upholds some of Johnson�s goals for good literature that both delights and instructs. Her movement from clouds, to love, to life follows a very linear pattern of learning and disillusionment that most people follow in their lives. Most importantly, she examines each subject completely. �Rows and flows of angel hair/ And ice cream castles in the air/ And feather canyons everywhere/ I�ve looked at clouds that way,� Mitchell sings in the opening lines of the song. The figurative language builds on a sound foundation of reality, and nature. Is this the ultimate goal of Johnson�s essay of criticism? This is unlikely.
One of the primary themes that Mitchell expresses in her song is that in having seen both sides of the story, she still doesn�t know life, love, or even clouds. Nothing has truly been understood. Johnson is highly critical of Shakespeare�s lack of virtuous writing, stating �Justice is a virtue independent on time or place� (229). In this quote, he is referring to the villains who are treated improperly by Shakespeare�s haste to finish a story. Or when in a rush to please, he neglected to take his moral responsibilities seriously. As stated earlier, Johnson felt very strongly that the writer had a duty to make the world a better place. In this view, Mitchell�s song falls short. Though it possesses a fundamental insight into the growth of individuals, it does not portray the world as a kind, easy place to be. It implies that accepted truths may in fact be illusion, and does not offer a way to understand this disillusionment, or disbelief.
Johnson�s expressed views in �Preface to Shakespeare� lead the critic to believe that his feelings on music were somewhat ambiguous. While he might have very much appreciated some songs, frivolous poetic aspects in music might easily have irritated him as much as Shakespeare�s moral deficiencies. In the case of �Both Sides Now,� Johnson easily could have felt the same ambivalence towards Mitchell as he felt towards Shakespeare.
A second assessment under the scope of Friedrich Nietzsche yields a more interesting investigation of poetic song. Nietzsche�s argument from �The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music� divides the artistic world into a binary. The first is imaged as the Apollonian branch, which grows from the idea of dream. This is a contemplative art, and gives birth to such visual arts as poetry, painting, and sculpture. The second side is the Dionysiac, which is described as a state of drunkenness of spirit. This art is kinetic, and its offspring is music.
Nietzsche�s essay looks into the birth of tragedy from the parent arts of the Apollonian and Dionysiac. Nietzsche describes this meeting of the arts as a �mysterious marriage, [which] after long discord, ennobled itself with such a child [as tragedy]� (425). Clearly he is taken with tragedy, and finds it to be a wonderful invention. The compound is basically the form we find today as a shortened modern song.
The aspects of visual art, which is connect to a direct imagery created by language, are involved, as well as the purely musical. Nietzsche defines the term �lyrical poet� as �a Dionysiac artist, become wholly identified with the original Oneness, its pain and contradiction, and producing a replica of Oneness as music�this music becomes visible to him again, as in a dream similitude, through the Apollonian dream influence� (425). By this statement, Nietzsche is linking lyrical poetry to the Dionysiac influence. He affirms that Dionysiac influence was an orgy-like practice, filled with narcotic potions and reveling. The Dionysiac is imaged as �the slave [who] emerges as a freeman; all the rigid, hostile walls which either necessity or despotism has erected between men are shattered� (421). The unified and abstract front is given music as a pure way in which to express emotion without the need to return to earthly laws. Music can become as wild and free as it may desire.
In light of Mitchell�s lyrics, it is interesting to note that she is using a format that Nietzsche labels as Dionysiac. But her words seem to claim that she is beyond the need of such a cult to explain her existence. She seems to say she is not paying the price of Dionysiac music.
The price of that Dionysiac freedom is quite high. �I feel inclined to the hypothesis that the original Oneness, the ground of Being, ever-suffering and contradictory, time and again has need of rapt vision and delightful illusion to redeem itself,� (423) Nietzsche writes. The statement reveals itself in the way in which humankind surrounds itself with illusionary controls of nature. Nietzsche indicates that this price is a necessity of Being, which Dionysiac and Apollonian cults both fulfill. The cults provide the illusion in which humanity can remove themselves from reality enough to maintain a stable lives. Mitchell�s poetic lyrics tie in with Nietzsche�s arguments very well. In her discussion of the elements of life, she sings �I�ve looked at love from both sides now/ From give and take, and still somehow/ It�s love�s illusions that I recall/ I really don�t know love.� Mitchell invests the song in an abstract study of the illusions she sees in everyday life, and how they affect her. Later in the song, she expresses, �Something�s lost, but something�s gained/ In living every day.� Clearly, she is in touch with Nietzsche�s point. Mitchell has lost the comfort of a life of illusion. Yet she enjoys the life without illusion, as it is the truth.
It remains possible to hypothesize that Mitchell has not truly gained a state without illusion, however. Nietzsche would likely interpret the lyrics to classify her as a na�ve poet, despite the genre of her work. �We can imagine the dreamer as he calls out to himself,� Nietzsche writes, �still caught in the illusion of his dream and without disturbing it� (423). The assertion catches Mitchell at an impasse. Her appearance is that of knowledge, but her reality is only of seeing it and not truly perceiving its own illusionary state. Nietzsche�s understanding of lyrical poetry is an entirely different method than that of Johnson. The standpoints of the two authors are nearly complete opposites. Nietzsche writes, �the entire comedy of art is not played for our own sakes�for our betterment or education� (427). This is in direct contradiction to Johnson�s statements that poetry is exactly for those purposes. But as these authors do not agree on aesthetics, they do agree on Mitchell. Her poetic song lacks unity under their principles. Johnson finds fault in a lack of virtue, while Nietzsche finds her art na�ve and Apollonian. But neither of these great writers� concepts allows for the song�s relative popularity or its own beauty. In this way, the authors fall short as well.
Works Cited
Johnson, Samuel, ��Preface to Shakespeare,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
Mitchell, Joni, �Both Sides Now,� in Joni Mitchell Both Sides Now. New York: Reprise Records, 2000
Nietzsche, Friedrich, �The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
A DISCUSSION OF FEMINIST AND PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORIES IN LITERATURE
An argument often begins with two people expressing different views on a common topic. Frequently these people will not express right or wrong arguments, but opinions. In such a case, both people may be right, or both wrong. The same is true for literary analysis. In this paper, I will be examining two theories in relation to how the theories portray a piece of literature. This will involve an understanding of how the two theories work in relation to an example.
Sigmund Freud�s short work, �Creative Writers and Daydreaming,� is the first example chosen to illustrate the inner workings of Sarah Orne Jewett�s short story, �The Foreigner.� Freud, as the father of psychoanalytic theory, has very definite thoughts on what a story means. The theory sets as a precept that each work has a surface story, under which lies the real meaning. This is significant, because it allows the critic to draw conclusions from hints that arise within a text.
�The Foreigner� carries a strong surface text. The plot is set in an historical New England shipping town. The narrative is spoken through an interior story told by the character �Mrs. Todd� about a foreign woman. The surface text is told in an almost entirely female voice. It is here Freudian revelation enters into an examination of the deeper meaning, or subtext. Freud claims that �our actual enjoyment of an imaginative work proceeds from a liberation of tensions in our minds,� (488) and that �[the adult] is ashamed of his fantasies as being childish and as being unpermissible� (484). Freud calls to attention the adult�s desire to appear in control. His theory now develops a sense that a mind may not always be aware of the fantasies it creates because the adult feels the fantasies to be unacceptable. The interpretation I take from these passages suggests that characters act out a fantasy, which is acceptable only through use of art. This brings us back to �The Foreigner� and the signs through which the critic can use psychoanalytic theory to understand the subtext fantasies of the characters.
�In young women,� Freud writes, �the erotic wishes predominate almost exclusively� (485). Here, Freud is suggesting that in women, there is a great desire for eroticism. However, eroticism in the young woman is an unfulfilled wish, which motivates the subconscious to fantasy. �The Foreigner� occurs in a very small community that consists mainly of women. This is suggestive on its own, with association to Freud�s statement that women are predominately erotic creatures. Freud seems to be suggesting that the small town would naturally lean towards lesbian interaction as a reaction to the dearth of males. Further evidence can be found in the section that discusses Mrs. Todd�s relationship to Mis� Tolland, the foreigner. �I was a sight younger than I be now, and she made me imagine new things, and I got interested watchin� her and findin� out what she had to say� (738), Mrs. Todd says. Just a few lines later, she continues the story, saying �we used to be real good comrades goin� off for an afternoon, but I never give her a kiss till the day she laid in her coffin� (738). These words seem to describe the feelings many heterosexual people expound more openly in the early stages of a love affair. The line �she made me imagine new things� is especially suggestive. The juxtaposition of the second phrase also suggests that Mrs. Todd had an affinity for the foreign woman. They clearly spent a good deal of time together. An earlier reference to Mis� Tolland by Mrs. Todd offers further insight. �She was a good-looking woman; yes, I always thought Mis� Tolland was good-looking,� (736) Mrs. Todd states. These descriptions offer a view into the story that can be construed as a homoerotic wish or desire. Mrs. Todd, during her acquaintance with Mis� Tolland was newly widowed, like Mis� Tolland herself. With their male counterparts removed, the psychoanalytic criticism can take a close look at this relationship.
With the hard focus on the female relationships in �The Foreigner,� it is not difficult to come to the conclusion that psychoanalytic criticism can link this particular short story to a lesbian subculture. Another aspect of this short work begs to be examined as well, however. This aspect is the positioning of the narrator within the story. Freud labels Jewett�s use of her storyteller as �eccentric,� as the character is placed outside the main tale but remains a first person narrator. Freud explains this phenomenon, saying �[the protagonist] sees the actions and sufferings of other people pass before him like a spectator� (486). This description, using Freud�s own precepts, causes the narrator to appear as a voyeur. This plays on the forbidden aspect of homosexual interactions that psychoanalytical theory suggests for �The Foreigner.� The narrator, like the reader, is granted a special look into relationships and lives. This method yields a sort of greedy, gossipy sort of wish to hear the story. In �The Foreigner,� the narrator expresses this to herself, thinking �all these revelations were of the deepest interest� (738). The comment brings to bear an interesting element, which is the narrator�s relationship to Mrs. Todd. The relationship is only described as a friendship, but the nameless woman narrator appears to live in the same house or on the same property. The association is left open. Thus the commentary concerning Mrs. Todd�s revelations may provide a good context for understanding the mysterious relationship.
The connections between psychoanalytical theory and eroticism it presents in �The Foreigner� can be rather disturbing, when revealed to an audience unfamiliar or unprepared for Freud. While Freudian theory remains active, it is important to consider, yet there remain many other theories, which may explain literature, or in particular, �The Foreigner,� in a more significant way. With this in mind, I will now begin an examination of feminist theory as examined in Annette Kolodny�s essay �Dancing Through the Minefield: Some Observations on the Theory, Practice, and Politics of a Feminist Literary Criticism.�
Kolodny�s primary argument is that throughout history, men had a �fear of sharing power and significance with women� (1399). It follows that this has caused a serious lack of literature written by women though out many periods. Kolodny spends a great deal of time examining the reasons why male texts remain in vogue. The main reason, she postulates, lies in the �incapacity of predominantly male readers to properly interpret and appreciate women�s text�due in large part, to a lack of prior acquaintance� (1392).
In response to this quote, I would like to put forth a personal observation. In an American literature class, we were assigned four texts to read. They were �Daisy Miller: A Study,� �Roman Fever,� �The Yellow Wallpaper,� and �The Foreigner.� During class, we were placed in groups, of which there were five total, and asked to choose two of the four stories. The idea was that if we were going to teach high school students, which of these two would be most valuable. Only one group chose �The Foreigner� to be on their list. The demographic of this class was six women to one man.
Kolodny would likely see this result as of �learned� reading. �For insofar as literature is itself a social institution, so, too, reading is a highly socialized�or learned�activity,� (1391) Kolodny claims. In this statement she looks at the texts studied by high school students and college students in western culture. The vast amount of canonized literature is written by males, or written for males. An aesthetic is not present for women in the majority of work presented to students. This creates a bias that sees the �male� method of writing as an ideal. As such, the nearly entirely female character list of �The Foreigner,� with its homely setting and women�s interests does not draw as much attention as �Daisy Miller: A Study,� �Roman Fever,� and �The Yellow Wallpaper.� A note of interest here is that the first two listed can be viewed as bearing misogynist themes, and the latter is a story of a woman�s fall into madness during a case of postpartum depression. Thus it would seem odd for a predominately female class to choose these three so much more often over �The Foreigner,� if the reading bias were not made explicit.
Kolodny explains that a male reader, who �has never made acquaintance with those contexts�will necessarily lack the capacity to fully interpret the dialogue or action embedded therein� (1393). Through this argument, she expounds on a number of topics, the main being that men are simply not historically capable of understanding or wanting to understand a woman�s dialogue in life and work. Combining this with her prior statements to the effect that students are taught how to read and what to enjoy, she indicates that women as well as men will demonstrate this bias.
�The Foreigner� exhibits the characteristics of women�s writing that Kolodny describes as being places or subjects that would be naturally comfortable and familiar to a woman in the course of her life. �I had drawn a large wooden rocking-chair before the fire, and Mrs. Todd was siting there jogging herself a little, knitting fast, and wonderfully placid of countenance,� (731) Jewett writes, as she sets the scene for her story. Jewett�s descriptions of places and people also follow the tone of a woman talking to a friend. �Whatever they lack o� prudence they more �n made up with charity,� (734) Mrs. Todd states, as she describes her father and several of his friends. Her description of a house is also very telling. There were �two slim black spruces spindlin� up against the front windows to make it gloomy inside�.And there was a good excellent kitchen,� (735) she says. These facts would mean very little to her contemporary man. It is true that men might care about their own charitable works, but they would be less likely to call that into play when another man questioned his character. As for the home, men spent very little time in the there. Thus a male description of the property might very well have included a very cursory description of the entire house, and spent more time on the arable quality of the land or the geography in relation to other places. Certainly, the woman�s domain of the house and kitchen are in use here.
Jewett also places a higher value on relationships than actions. While action does occur in the course of �The Foreigner,� it plays a background role to the interactions of people. In the final scene, in which the ghost of Mis� Tolland�s mother appears at her daughter�s deathbed, there is a heavy emphasis on relationships. �You ain�t never goin� to feel strange an� lonesome no more,� (746) Mrs. Todd tells the dying woman. This is in marked contrast to the heavier role played by death in most male texts, which may be due to the role of �heroic death.� Yet in Jewett�s story, the story centers around the life which surrounds death, not the other way around. And it is this method, though critiqued, which Kolodny calls forward as valid literature.
Psychoanalytical and feminist theories have very different opinions about the truth of literature. Freud delves deeply into the subtext in an effort to capture an essence, which he labels unfulfilled wishes. Kolodny points out the places in which women�s literature diverges from that of its male counterparts, and how society is biased against it. As with any argument, both may hold facets of truth. However, for the basis of this inquiry, it is clear that Kolodny�s views hold truest to the form presented in the literary piece, �The Foreigner.� Although hints of a lesbian community may be present in �The Foreigner,� to put forward such an argument a critic must warp the text. Kolodny�s precepts, in contrast, connect with the short story and pull forward elements in a way that is logical acceptable and enlightening. And so I pronounce the winner of Round One of this debate to be Kolodny, and Feminist Criticism.
Works Cited
Freud, Sigmund, �Creative Writers and Daydreaming,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
Jewett, Sarah Orne, �The Foreigner,� in The Heath Anthology of American Literature, Volume Two. 4th ed. Ed. Paul Lauter. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002
Kolodny, Annette, �Dancing Through the Minefield: Some Observations on the Theory, Practice, and Politics of a Feminist Literary Criticism,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
SLEEPING SAYTR
The statue rests on a modern base, its marble gleaming whitely in the museum light. Upon an artificial marble rock, upon a marble rug or skin, lies the �Sleeping Satyr,� also known as the �Barberini Faun.� The oversized creature is carved in the round, and is entirely nude. He lies on his back, with his right arm behind his head. His left arm is missing from the sculpture, though it is notable that it appears to be draping over a protuberance of the object on which he is lying. His head is tilted to the left; his face is lax in sleep. His hair is curly, and from the back view, it appears he may be wearing a headband or coronet, which pushes the hair forward. The Satyr is muscular and thin; his pectoral muscles are well defined, but not huge and his ribs are visible through his skin. His nipples are erect. The curvature of his spine causes a crease just above his navel. The positioning of the Satyr�s legs, spread apart and at different levels, causes his penis and scrotum to become a focal point of the piece. His buttocks are visible due to this positioning of the legs, also. His legs bear heavier muscles than his torso. His feet and ankles begin to look chubby, and his digits two through five are noticeably longer than digit one.
The marble upon which the Satyr rests appears to be carved in the image of a stone, possible also including part of a tree, against which the Satyr leans his torso. The figure of the Satyr is clearly interacting with this environment. Between the rock or tree and the figure is a cloth or animal skin. It appears most likely to be an animal skin, as it demonstrates unevenness after it passes under the Satyr�s right foot and towards the viewer, suggestive of the leg of an animal skin. The edges are fringed or furred. It separates the Satyr from his seating entirely, with the exception of his feet.
The �Sleeping Satyr� is a work created in the Hellenistic period. This period, though the Greek city-states had lost autonomy, continued to create art in the High and Late Classical periods. During this period, art was created to provoke an emotional response, and would have still been painted. It began to show a new appreciation of different people and subjects. One of the Satyr�s famous contemporaries is �The Boxer,� preserved in hollow cast bronze replication. While nudity remained a part of the art form, the rigidity of poised statuary fades.
A strong influence on the statue of the Sleeping Satyr is the work of Polykleitos in his treatise, Canon of Proportions. This canon presented the male body as a perfect object, divided mathematically into units. This ideal was put into reality in Polykleitos� masterpiece, �The Spear Bearer.� The concept behind the canon was that perfect proportions equaled beauty. Along with beauty was the conception of the hero. Hero was very important to the Greek civilization. Hero was meant to designate victors in competition and battle, but also extended to other competitions. Through earlier periods, there was emphasis on the strong physical and emotional states that created this creature. Polykleitos takes the hero into account, as perfection of body was an equal to being loved and supported by the gods�a must for the hero in Greek society.
As stated earlier, in Hellenistic art, the market for expressionistic work becomes mainstream. Through this movement towards emotional statuary, a piece such as �Sleeping Satyr� becomes possible. The Satyr displays Polykleitos� proportions, and such is as one favored by the gods. Satyr is unusual however, in that the figure is neither upright nor awake. His reclining body, despite its perfect proportions, is not addressed to the audience by its movement, or lack thereof. It is neutral, which is highly unusual in Greek art of any period. Moreover, it is not serving any particular purpose. Earlier statuary was primarily designed to commemorate an event or honor a deity. The Hellenistic period is unique for its portrayals of more common things, such as the �Market Woman� and the �Butcher.� However, these remain as representations of people in motion, which the �Sleeping Satyr� most distinctly does not.
This inaction is the first clue in decoding the Satyr. It seems rather innocuous at first, until the myth of the satyr itself is examined. In some recounts of Greek myth, the satyr bears certain characteristics of a horse or goat, and revels in the Dionysiac fashion. This is a fairly tame interpretation. More often, satyrs were represented with permanent erections, which symbolized promiscuity and insatiable sexual appetite. Satyrs were also believed to have pursued both men and women in their desire, and the term �satyr� frequently was linked with sodomy. Finally, in connection to the Satyr�s position, satyrs were often said to have attacked sleeping persons.
With this commentary provided, the Satyr now becomes even more unusual when compared to its contemporaries. In fact, the Satyr seems to have had its role reversed. Instead of being the attacker, it lies in a position of rest, and the observer views the man�s literal nudity quite freely. The Satyr is open to attack from anyone. His aggressive erection is also absent. In effect, this might be read as a �tamed� satyr.
It is the opinion of Umberto Eco, in his essay �The Myth of Superman,� that art is ideologically inscribed and biased the conventions which produce it. �Content,� he writes, �sustains itself and functions communicatively thanks to the narrative structure; on the other hand, the stories help define the expressive structure as the circular, static conveyance of a pedagogic message which is substantially immobilistic� (876). According to this statement, and the general opinion of structuralism, it should be possible �to make explicit the underlying system which makes literary effects possible� (Culler, 857).
According to these theorists, then, what is necessary to decode the statue, as well as the society behind it, entirely from the factors listed above. Eco propounds that society �lived in the midst of messages loaded with redundance; the sense of tradition, the norms of associate living, more principles, the valid rules of proper comportment in the environment�� and �the only occasion of true relaxation offered to the consumer� (875). So now it is necessary to take a second look at the context of the sculpture, in view of what is redundant, and also importantly, what is purposely not redundant.
Nudity, though common in earlier periods of Greek sculpture, had become less common by the Hellenistic period. Less attention was paid to heroism, and more emphasis placed on dignity. Figures were more varied in how the sculptor would portray them. In this last respect, �Sleeping Satyr� follows the trend. Its theme would be more accepted due to the proliferance of its fellow oddities, whatever people felt about the subject. Furthermore, the Satyr does uphold many of the older heroic aspects as far as his figure goes. His oversized body, nudity, and perfect proportions display the heroic body marvelously.
The twist played to the sculpture does come in the form of the position given to the Satyr. His thoroughly relaxed and vulnerable position has nothing to do with heroic behavior at all. In fact, it suggests laziness. Lewdness at the very least, to be sleeping in such a public way. His curly hair is held in place with some variety of fastening. This hint of vanity or at the very least, consciousness of cosmetics, must also be considered.
These details contrast each other�or do they? The hero, as viewed from today, tends to fall in line with the early Greek definition. But it is possible that within the Greek society, the Satyr could have been seen as heroic, as well as many other things, including erotic. In fact, following the line of inquiry, it is very likely that the purpose of this statue was erotic. Noted earlier, satyrs were known as very sexual creatures. In fact, their main role in myth was sexual. And here, again, this role is reversed entirely. The handsome young Satyr lies in a garden of the forest, asleep, while the viewer approaches. This provocative scene invokes the erotic.
Enter the viewer. Who was this statue made for? If only the statue could open his eyes and give us the answer! It is very difficult to guess. Greek sexuality cannot be known in certainty. Records and scrolls can only record what is written. But the person who ordered this sculpture carved a sexual image into history. So now the trick�is this statue for a man or a woman?
Clue number one is the position, noted once more. The Satyr lies back, relaxed. His legs spread and present a very sensitive area to whatever may appear. The pose, confident as it may be, emulates a woman�s sexual position or invitation. Visible through the arrangement of the legs are the Satyr�s buttocks. Greek sexuality may have included women enjoying men�s buttocks. Yet this is a stretch, as the portion presented is the anus region of the buttocks. True, the statue could be erotic for men and women. The implied emphasis on the buttocks may be a culturally ridden image. Still, it seems more plausible, based on trends repeating over and over again through history, that the statue is meant for homosexual male eroticism, based on the factors mentioned above.
For a person in any society to commit such a blatantly sexual figure into marble is a meaningful thing. Eco writes, in regards to decision making, that the �process is linked to an indefinite series of necessary decision making that involves all other men� (870). This indicates that homosexuality was not restricted, for the habits of all men are behind the behavior. This does not mean that all men were homosexual or bisexual. Rather, it suggests that it was not forbidden among men. The statue, carved from marble, is a statement. From this one act, many conclusions can be drawn based on previous conclusions; the purchaser enjoyed homoerotic art, likely was homosexual or bisexual, and was wealthy enough to buy such an opulent piece. Nor was it a lower class behavior, or it was not confined to the lower classes. Again, that it exists means that society gave it significance as art, as a form.
This art piece does not illustrate all ways of life. It can only highlight how society thought about one portion of its members. But through its conventions, it is possible to note important part of Greek culture, and gives a wonderful window into the past. The �Sleeping Satyr,� as a homoerotic statue dating from the Hellenistic art period illustrates a way of life that has passed in some ways, and remains current in others. In the end, it helps to give us our history.
Works Cited
Culler, Jonathan, �Literary Competance,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
Eco, Umberto, �The Myth of Superman,� in The Critical Tradition. 2nd ed. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1998
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