Paul John Griffiths
SURVIVAL IN INSTITUTIONS: WHY CONSULTANCY SKILLS MATTER
Back to Contents½Essays on Forensic Psychology ½ Home Page ½ [email protected]
This essay was originally submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Master of Science in Criminological Psychology. "A most contentious or problematic area to psychologists seems to be that of consultancy" (Broome 1994 p.16). This essay illustrates the area of consultancy from a ‘Forensic’ or ‘Criminological’ perspective. ‘Forensic Psychologist’, for the benefit of this essay reefers to those individuals who have received postgraduate training in ‘Criminology’ or ‘Forensic’ psychology. This is seen as distinct from ‘Clinical Psychology’ or ‘Counseling Psychology’, where individuals may only work within a ‘Forensic’ setting usually under the ‘medical model’. This does not necessarily mean the two are exclusive. For a Forensic Psychologists may take further clinical training to become a ‘Clinical Psychologist’ and vice versa.
Here in the United Kingdom, Psychologists in general working as Consultants have applied their skills and expertise to a variety of settings including Statutory, Private, and the Voluntary Sectors, despite Øvretveit et. al. (1992), suggesting that "…many general managers… view psychologists as irrelevant or an expensive pain in the neck". Brunning & Huffington (1990 p.3), define the concept of ‘Consultancy’ as "a direct or indirect process enabling individuals, groups or organizations to fulfil their role better". Professor Ostapiuk (1999) puts forward three ingredients for consultancy namely; a review into the methods of service delivery; the questioning of traditional assumptions and thirdly, the challenge to existing power relationships.
It’s important for this essay to establish what a Consultant Forensic Psychologist is with respect to background training and to identify what core skills he or she possesses. Secondly, to ascertain what institutions Psychologists have traditionally worked within and to identify their varying roles and responsibilities. The increasing necessity for psychology surviving is vital, especially when considering the present economic and political climate that faces practicing psychologists. Therefore, some exploration is required to investigate what initiatives are utilized in the psychological field of consultancy. A working definition as to the specific role for a Forensic Psychology Consultant is postulated and then summarized.
TRAINING TO BE A CONSULTANT PSYCHOLOGIST Back to Contents
The traditional route for individuals who wish to pursue a career as a practicing psychology consultant is initially to undergo an undergraduate course in studies that is recognized by the psychologists’ professional body, The British Psychological Society (BPS) as furnishing the educational criteria for graduate basis for registration (GBR). This is mainly an understanding of and the ability to apply some of the following: Testing and Assessment, Learning, Development, Abnormal Behavior, Individual Differences, Education, Physiology, Information Technology and Statistics. Students will have obtained a Bachelor of Science, or Arts in Psychology with Honors.
Ideally students wishing to travel the road to Chartership, fulfil the requirement of gaining further experience and greater knowledge to postgraduate level. Depending on what specialty is chosen, taught courses are available in clinical, educational, forensic and organizational psychology at a variety of universities (information is available from the BPS). The duration is between 12 months and two years depending on whether this is undertaken full or part time. However, not all Universities that currently offer postgraduate courses in ‘applied’ psychology, are accredited to the BPS. Hopefully, sooner rather than later, all courses that offer professional training or parts of that training will be required to gain accreditation to those professional bodies. There may be a qualification prerequisite for such courses for either a 2:1 or 2:2 as minimum and for individuals to have undertaken relevant field experience as ‘Psychological Assistants’. Students who successfully complete the course will graduate with a Master of Science Degree, in that particular field of applied psychology.
For a potential practicing consultant psychologist, the road is still not yet fully traveled. For a further two years must be undertaken in supervised practice by a chartered psychologist, who then must attest to that individual’s standing and understanding with regards psychology and its implementation to the ‘applied’ field in question. An application is then made to the BPS who will ascertain whether the individual is competent to practice independently and award ‘Chartered Status’ if deemed appropriate. This entitles the individual to assign a suffix in this case "Chartered Forensic Psychologist" following his or her full name.
PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK Back to Contents
Currently, psychologists work within a variety of settings, some may have face-to-face contact with clients; some may work within institutions and some may work in private practice. Institutions could include security forces, prisons, hospitals, industry, service and commercial settings. They may work alone, within a team, they may be part of a specialty, they may have non-psychologists working for them, and they may work within a multi-disciplinary team and have equal status alongside other professionals.
Historically, in health settings, psychologists have operated as a separate service to that of speech therapist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist, nursing and psychiatric staff. It is unfortunate that the medical model has hiarichally-established doctors an omnipotent to other professionals and the very nature of the referral system only supports this notion. Health Authorities, throughout their service, employ mainly Clinical Psychologists (individuals who chose to specialize at postgraduate level in clinical psychology), to provide a psychological input to patients. This can either be a ‘Clinical Psychological Service’, such as that operated by South Birmingham Health Authority. This includes all specialties namely: Older Adults, Adults, Children, Learning Disabilities, Health and Neurological (operating out of one base and supplying a service to a larger area), or independent psychology departments, operating within specialist hospitals, or sole psychologists working within specialist units.
The Home Office’s Prison and Probation Departments, employ Forensic Psychologists to work in Prisons and Community Probation Services, where a not dissimilar structure exists as previously represented for the Health Service. Again, various Educational Authorities nationally employ Educational Psychologists. Organizational or Occupational Psychologists, may work for; Head Offices, Personnel Departments, Recruitment Agencies, Industry, Research & Design, Sales, Advertising, Government Departments including Home Office, Health, M.O.D, etc. These latter divisions of psychologists perhaps because they are more accustomed to the commercial demands of practice, have become excellent in diversity and are weathering the storm. Unlike some of the other disciplines, Occupational Psychologists have developed Commercial Consultancy over a very long period of time and to most, this is an essential item within their own ‘Tool Kit’ of psychological skills.
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO INSTITUTIONS Back to Contents
This may seem an unusual section to follow the previous one; however, it is an area that is seldom discussed outside of closed doors. Psychologists that work for Organizations and Institutions alike, must be aware of the political environment that surrounds them or face the continual consequence of becoming side-tracked or even shunted for good. From my own experience psychologists in general have that unfortunate desire to seek out understanding, knowledge of process and also, have an uncanny trait of persistence in the face of adversity, making psychologists either the ‘Best Friend’ or the ‘Worst Enemy’ of potential employers or colleagues alike.
Organizations that traditionally have offered some form of Psychological Service have at times used psychologists for both ‘Internal’ and ‘External Consultancy’. Problems exist in both camps. Although, ‘External Consultancy’ as Broome (1994 as cited by Quarry and Burbach 1998 p.14-15) suggests, can generate extra income and enhance the value of that psychologist. The downside is that this work is seldom clinical in nature. The Internal Consultant also needs to have political awareness, independence, the ability to role divorce, and freedom to complete tasks. Marshall & McLean (1985 as cited by Browne 1994 p.16) suggest that "Internal (Consultants) would have a greater difficulty challenging the status quo than External (Consultants)". Therefore, areas that need to be included in a working brief, ideally would include the following issues outlined in detail: Nature for Focus, Authority, Accountability, Timing Schedule and Funding Constraints. For those individuals who wish to attain proficiency as Consultants, Brunning & Huffington (1990) and Broome (1994) {both cited by Quarry and Burbach 1998 page 14} "have identified the particular difficulties related to status, objectivity and perceived role". Organizationally, some management teams interpret psychological input as adverse and " do not see why they should pay for such expensive criticism when they get enough from the media and other quarters (Øvretveit et.al. 1992 p. 28).
There are also professional dilemmas to face, especially when current institutional regimes or practices could be construed as draconian, resource draining and questionable unethical. It may be an easy option to leave the job. Some do decide to battle on and face the problems associated with ‘Groupthink’ (Janis 1972). Others will fight for a time, attempt to hold ground and then crumble under stress. A sad reflection on some of the working practices, that are all too common.
Within many of the work settings previously detailed, psychologists have been seen, to be a direct threat to conventional practice, in particular evident within the medical model, that has unfortunately encroached into the Prison system. With the increasing awareness of ‘what works’ (Maguire 1995), especially with respect to effective treatment interventions that are primarily ‘social-psycho-educational’ in design, the present time may be conducive to developing the role of ‘Forensic Psychology Consultancy’, so that it becomes a central resource to various institutions.
PSYCHOLOGISTS AS CONSULTANTS Back to Contents
Psychologists perform diverse roles within organizations. In an early paper entitled ‘Adapt or Decay’, Øvretveit, Brunning & Huffington (1992), suggest that consultancy already materializes in the form of "management, planning and project work". This utilizes both "expert consulting" and "process consulting". Broome (1994 p.17) states "a skilled process consultant is someone who works more on the processes and less on the content" and an "expert consultant brings specific expertise to the client and offers help with what is done". Øvretveit et. al.(1992 p.28) suggest that their specific clinical training in "research methods, problem solving and systematic approaches" furnishes the essential skills required to " analyze and resolve many organizational and service problems". However, they raised the point that in 1992, Psychology within the National Health Service was already becoming "marginalized" and stated that "many psychologists had lost their formal positions at district, unit and even divisional levels, with the loss of access to information and of influence" (Øvretveit et. al.1992). Quarry & Burbach (1998 p.15) question the training for Clinical Psychology on a whole and ask what specifically did they learn with regards organizational psychology. They go on to raise concern in which the "increasingly demanding environment, psychologists are not making the impact on the care system that they could and should".
If one is in favor of seeing psychologists as ‘Scientific Practitioners’ and has an awareness and appreciation for their core skills (‘tools of the trade’), then it may be possible to utilize these skills for the benefit of the Organisation as a whole. It is also doubly important for the individual to recognize his or her own area of expertise and to identify those areas that need further development, before competency can be claimed. "It is also a strong selling point to be clear about what you know your limits and boundaries of competence" (Broome 1994 p.16). When a ‘personal skills audit’ has been compiled, a working portfolio of skill base can be prepared. From this, forensic practice can be undertaken, either independently or for an Organisation.
Within a Forensic environment, psychologists are accustomed to be called upon to provide ‘Expert Evidence’ to the Courts. Here the legal definition for "Expert", is held to mean higher specialist knowledge, than found in the common man’. If we compare the roles of ‘Expert’ and ‘Consultant’, a common definition must include significant aspects of: experience, proficiency, competency, integrity and honesty. If not, then the role of Consultant or Expert should not be assumed.
In ‘Clinical Consultancy in adult mental health’ Quarry and Burbach (1998 p.14), put forward the notion that certain specialties within the Clinical field, for example ‘Learning Disabilities’ and ‘Health Psychology’, have evolved better than perhaps more popular fields such as ‘Adult Mental Health’. They report a "continuing reluctance among psychologists to augment their direct therapeutic role with broader-based consultancy activities" (Quarry & Burbach 1998 p.14). Øvretveit et.al. (1992 p.28) think that many psychologists are ambivalent about consulting work, preferring to "sit on the fence and retain one’s purity than to make the compromise and settle for the less than perfect world…" However, Brunning & Huffington (1994 p.8) put forward a baseline namely "psychologists need to recognize that consultancy is already within their repertoire".
In order to understand the area of consultancy, we need to have an overview of the various procedures. Brunning et. al., (1990 as cited by Ostapiuk 1999) put forward a number of distinct stages in consultancy. ‘Scouting’, deciding whether or not to enter the system. ‘Entry’, preparing a working relationship with the client. ‘Contracting’, agreeing a role and purpose. ‘Data Gathering’, in-depth assessment. ‘Diagnosis’, interpretation of the data. ‘Planning’, suggestions for possible interventions, training and evaluation. ‘Intervention’, putting into place, what was discussed in the previous section. ‘Evaluation’, assessing the impact of the intervention and identifying what further work is required. ‘Withdrawal’, terminating the consultation relationship and the identification for possible follow up. I would include a final element of sending in the ‘Bill’.
A FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY CONSULTANT Back to Contents
Hollin (1996), notes that efforts are being made to bridge the research-practice divide by incorporating the information that emerges from meta-analysis, into blueprints for effective program design. Øvretveit et.al. (1992 page 28) state that "psychologists have much to offer in this area of expert consulting, for example, in areas involving specialist knowledge of research and assessment, such as consumer surveys, assessment of needs and service evaluation".
With respect to the type and style of service, the research team of Andrews, Zinger, Hodge, Bonta, Gendreau and Cullen (1990a) identified that some therapeutic approaches are not conducive to general use with offenders. Remington & Remington (1987), looked at the implementation of a cognitive behavioral modification program, intended to be used by Probation Officers, for direct work with offenders; and discovered that the initial reception to such methods, were seldom welcomed. They reiterated that any intended training needed to be thorough.
But, it is getting extremely late in the day to begin to consider the merits of introducing a Consultant Forensic Psychologist to a potentially hostile environment. Trist et al (1970 as cited by Øvretveit et.al. 1992 p.29) identified the central role of Consultants, namely their ability to concentrate on the psychological necessities of all involved, ‘purchasers, providers and service users’. However, the need exists for Forensic Psychologists to be deployed, in a variety of settings, for example, ‘Community Teams’, ‘Probation Services’, ‘Prisons’, ‘Young Offender Institutions’, ‘Forensic Health Units’, ‘Police Authorities’, ‘Social Services’ and within the ‘Courts of Law’ etc.
In order to become effective, Consultant Forensic Psychologists must concurrently influence employers, employees and the physical environment in order to maximize effect. Quarry & Burbach (1998 p.16) suggest a way forward, namely to "integrate training and supervision in a package which is attractive to both staff and service managers alike". Broome (1994 p.16) informs us that psychologists "do not always have the process skills for training effectively and sometimes see themselves as good at everything" However, Quarry & Burbach (1998) have a central feature to their integrated training package namely, "that the entire team, without exception, participate in the training events". This is crucial, for it furnishes a common baseline of understanding, knowledge and methodology, which will facilitate consistency of approach. Thus increasing the productivity and effectiveness of the task in question, "augmented and elaborated in subsequent supervision sessions" (Quarry & Burbach 1998). Stein (1975 as cited by Quarry & Burbach 1998) suggested "that providing training without linked supervision constitutes bad ethical practice, given the risk of a drift towards the non-systemic or haphazard application of principles" (Quarry & Burbach 1998 p.17).
Ethical integrity is a vital ingredient for any intending Consultant Forensic Psychologist course of action that involves intervention or training. Therefore, any proposals can be successful only if the are rigorously and properly implemented. Øvretveit et.al. (1992 p.27) suggests psychologists "need to develop more economical ways of using (their) skills. If (they) are able to develop and market (their) consulting role, this maybe one way of influencing service development which does not conflict with (their) philosophy". Hollin (1996), states "solid and effective (interventions) do not magically appear overnight; they require planning for both content, and resources; trained personnel to conduct assessments and deliver treatment; and the flexibility to cope with the varying demands and problems presented by different clients".
It’s unfortunate that implementation of new organizational philosophy and structure are seldom met without resistance. Gendreau (1996) in his paper on "Offender Rehabilitation" illustrates several hurdles to future progress in the field of effective treatments of offenders. He identifies these as 'theoreticsm', 'failure to effect technology transfer' and a 'deficiency of suitable training programs'. Richard Laws (1974) reported the failure of a residential "token economy". He found that the very institution that is to benefit could create its own barriers to setting up behavioral programs. This is highlighted by Burchard & Lane (1982), who comment "…behavior-modification advocates who do not recognize that much of their time will be spent trying to change behavior of staff and policy and administrators are in for a rude awakening."
Training programs initiated by Consultants, and designed to be effective are usually quite intensive, based on understanding the interpersonal relationships and social learning methodologies. The programs themselves are ideally either modeled on cognitive behavior or modeling based principles and targets the acquisition of new skills. Any training has to be delivered in a way that facilitates the growth of new skills, these being introduced and maintained in a firm but supporting atmosphere. Positive reinforcement should be the goal, as opposed to the use of disciplinary measures. Personnel selection should be rigorous, highly trained, supported and supervised, irrespective of their position or job description.
It is a fact that when working as a consultant within an institution, there comes a time when that input is no longer required. "This is the moment to cherish, because it shows full ownership by the team of the work done, which was, after all, your aim was it not? We hope for an ‘ego-less’ withdrawal and learning this has not been easy or painless" (Brunning & Huffington 1991 p.35). Broome (1994 p. 18) reminds us that, "one of the greatest qualities of psychologists is their adaptability in applying psychological principles to unusual or different sites or subjects". The future for Forensic Psychology Consultancy in the United Kingdom looks extremely promising. Especially with the growth of consultancy services such as the ‘Forensic Psychology Practice Limited’, that utilizes the skills of eminent individuals such as Eric Cullen and Eugene Ostapiuk, for the benefit of institutions and organizations alike. However, there is a huge amount of work ahead, if this professional service is to be the first choice for purchasers in the future. Forensic Psychologists need to be proactive in their ‘public relations’ in order to secure a viable, successful and interesting future, only then will the unwanted ‘pain in the arse’ be perceived as a necessary ‘kick up the backside’ by Purchasers within the institutions and organizations. Long live Forensic Psychological Consultancy!
Andrews, D., Zinger, I., Hodge, R., Bonta, J., Gendreau, P. and Cullen, F. (1990a). Does correctional treatment work? Criminology, 28, 369-404.
Broome, A. (1994) Selling psychology in a competitive market place. Clinical Psychology Forum, AUG, 15-18
Broome, A. (1994) Selling psychology in a competitive market place. As cited in Quarry, A. and Burbach, F. (1998) Clinical consultancy in adult mental health: integrating whole team training and supervision. Clinical Psychology Forum, 120, 14-17
Brunning, A., Cole, C., & Huffington, C. (1990) The Change Directory: Key Issues in Organizational Development and in the Management of Change. As cited by Ostapiuk, E. (1999). Consultancy Issues and Approaches. University of Birmingham, M.Sc. Course in Criminological Psychology, 22 June 1999.
Brunning, H. & Huffington, C. (1994) After the jump what next? The thrills and spills of internal consultancy. As cited Quarry, A. and Burbach, F. (1998) Clinical consultancy in adult mental health: integrating whole team training and supervision. Clinical Psychology Forum, 120, 14-17
Brunning, H. & Huffington, C. (1994) The "Consultancy model": empowering ourselves and our clients. Clinical Psychology Forum, NOV,, 28-29
Burchard, J. & Lane, T. (1982). Crime & Delinquency. Cited in C. Hollin. (1992). Criminal Behavior: A Psychological Approach to Explanation and Prevention. London.: The Falmer Press, p.258.
Gendreau, P. (1996). Offender rehabilitation: What we know and what needs to be done. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23:144-161.
Hollin, C. (1996). Criminal Behavior: A Psychological Approach to Explanation and Prevention. London: The Falmer Press.
Janis, I. (1972). Victims of Groupthink. Cited in C. Handy, (1993). Understanding Organizations. London: Penguin Books, p.163.
Laws, R. (1974). The Failure of a Token Economy. Federal Probation, 38:33-38.
Marshall, J. & McLean, A. (1985) Exploring organizational culture as a route to organizational change. Cited in Broome, A. (1994) Selling psychology in a competitive market place. Clinical Psychology Forum, AUG, 15-18
McGuire, J. (1995). The Death of Deterrence. In J. McGuire & B. Rower (Eds.) Does Punishment Work? London: Institute for the Study & Treatment of Delinquency.
Ostapiuk, E. (1999). Consultancy Issues and Approaches. University of Birmingham, M.Sc. Course in Criminological Psychology, 22 June 1999.
Øvretveit, J., Brunning, H. & Huffington, C. (1992) Adapt or decay: why clinical psychologists must develop the consulting role. Clinical Psychology Forum, August 1992, 27-29
Quarry, A. and Burbach, F. (1998) Clinical consultancy in adult mental health: integrating whole team training and supervision. Clinical Psychology Forum, 120, 14-17
Remington & Remington (1987) Mislaid reference SORRY
Stein, T. (1975) Some ethical considerations of short-term workshops in the principles and methods of behavior modification. As cited by Quarry, A. and Burbach, F. (1998) Clinical consultancy in adult mental health: integrating whole team training and supervision. Clinical Psychology Forum, 120, 14-17
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