Paul John Griffiths
Describe current methods of intervention with sex offenders and discuss how these interventions might be evaluated.
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This essay was originally submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Master of Science in Criminological Psychology. Little attention has been paid to sexual offences committed specifically by juveniles; many of the offences have been regarded as experimental or as the result of novel curiosity (Hollin 1996). Ryan & Lane (1991) state that until recent years, juveniles engaging in behaviors that were clearly both sexual and criminal were often dismissed as "boys will be boys" or given a "slap on the hand", by parents, teachers and judges alike. Interest is, however, growing especially by researchers and clinicians, but published research material, still remains relatively sparse (Sipe, Jensen & Everett 1998). But at least Ryan (1991) supplies a definition of a Juvenile Sexual Offender, namely, as "a minor who commits any sexual act with a person of any age: against the victim’s will, without consent or in an aggressive, exploitative or threatening manner".
Sexual offenders reflect at least some degree of sexual attraction to inappropriate partners or acts, often associated with relative lack of appropriate sexual arousal (Epps 1996). So, treatment programs for juvenile sex offenders currently have a cognitive-behavioral emphasis. The distorted thinking and belief systems of sexual offenders are seen as a consequence of deviant arousal and behavior, serving to justify and rationalize their antisocial acts (Hollin 1996). Therefore, the aims of cognitive behavioral intervention for sexual offenders are to normalize, enhance social functioning and improve life management skills. The goal of sex offender treatment is to reduce the probability of future offending.
This essay identifies the current interventions for juvenile sex offenders, that is individuals between the ages of ten & seventeen, once they have been found guilty by a Court of Law. The first section offers a Juvenile Sex Offender Profile, with respect to background information concerning individual characteristics and administration through the criminal justice system. Section two discusses the various therapeutic interventions presently available. Section three explores how the interventions can be evaluated and discusses the purpose of assessments. Finally, the last section evaluates treatment outcomes. A brief summary follows, highlighting the significant points.
JUVENILE SEX OFFENDER PROFILE Back to top
Public concern towards adolescent sex offending has been reinforced with literature reviews that suggest 20% of the rapes (Brown, Flanagan & McLeod 1984) and 30-50% of all childhood sexual offences might be attributed to juvenile offenders (Davis & Leitenberg 1987). In 1995, 15.8% of arrests in the U.S.A for forcible rape and 17.0% of arrests for other sexual offences were of individuals younger than 18 years of age (F.B.I 1996). The work of Benoit & Kennedy (1992) looked at the abuse history of male juvenile sex offenders. They found in their comparison between, non-sexual offenders and sexual offenders no direct relationship between being a victim of sexual or physical abuse and subsequent offending.
The work by Groth, Longo & McFadin (1982) emphasizes the importance of early identification and effective treatment for juvenile offenders. They found that approximately half of a convicted adult sample, consisting of 83 rapists and 54 child molesters, reported committing their first offence in their teens, and reported 2-5 times more offences than arrests. However, they found that all offenders in the four groups of: aggressive, non-aggressive, female molesters and male/female molesters were impaired in some respect with regards to sexual identity. Hunter & Becker (1994) found that juveniles who had been sexually abused as children had more victims than those whom had no history of sexual abuse. Offenders who had themselves been sexually abused as children were equally likely to have a male or a female victim. Juveniles who had no history of sexual abuse selected female victims with a greater frequency than male victims. However, juveniles with a history of physical abuse, were found to have more victims than those who were not physically abused as children. There is also a connection between family members and criminality; this was highlighted in the research of Oliver, Nagayama Hall & Neuhaus (1983). They found that for violent offenders, 38% had an immediate family member who had been convicted of a crime, compared to 24% of non-violent offenders and 18% for sex offenders.
Heinz, Ryan & Bengis (1991) found that many of the sanctions for juvenile sexual offenders are in fact based on the cultural and clinical assumptions that they will continue to offend. They also found that during the past ten years sentences for juvenile sexual offenders have become more punitive with an emphasis on incarceration. The most effective juvenile justice interventions are swift, certain, consistent and appropriate (Bilchik 1998) and in order to achieve these objectives the Criminal Justice System must include a mechanism for comprehensively assessing a juvenile when he or she first commits the offence, so that the correct sentence and intervention can be determined. The system must also have the capacity to provide a multi-modal approach and incorporate increasingly severe sentences and intensive treatment services when an offender fails to respond to initial intervention or becomes involved in a serious offence or is a violent first time offender.
A model by which sexual offending behavior can be defined emerged from the work of Becker & Kaplan (1988). Their model covers individual characteristics, family variables and social environment variables as possible precursors to the juvenile’s first sexual offence. Following the first offence, they suggest that there are three possible paths that may be followed: The first "Dead End Path", in which the juvenile, never commits further deviant sexual acts; secondly the "Delinquent Path", in which they may go on to commit further sexual offences whilst committing other delinquent acts and finally the "Sexual Interest Pattern Path", in which individuals go on to commit further sexual offences and develop a paraphilic arousal pattern.
Social learning Theory and Cognitive Behavioral methods have yielded significant reductions in recidivism. (Rice & Chapman 1978). Cognitive Behavioral approaches to offender treatment can be divided into those that change cognitions of the violent individual and those that change behavior (Hollin 1993). The next section looks at specific interventions in more detail.
Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Techniques have been found to be effective in modifying deviant arousal and fantasy in a number of sexual offenders (Fisher & McGregor 1996). These techniques fall into two categories: those that decrease the attractiveness of the deviant fantasy, by linking it to negative or aversive consequences; those that increase the attractiveness of non-deviant fantasies, by linking them to rewarding consequences. Some examples follow.
Aversion Therapy, for example ‘Olfactory Aversion’, involves the paring of an unpleasant smell with a deviant fantasy. The juvenile who presently associates a fantasy with pleasures of sexual arousal, begins to associate the fantasy with an unpleasant stimuli, hence reduces sexual arousal. The fantasy would be presented as a visual image or on an audiotape. Offenders attend two, one-hour sessions per week for three weeks and then two additional sessions over a two-week period. Within each one-hour session, aversion therapy lasts approximately twenty-five minutes and involves approximately 30 pairings (Hollin 1996).
Shame Aversion Therapy, involves the juvenile simulating the deviant act in front of an audience, who may be instructed to ridicule the individual. The embarrassing experience and high levels of anxiety become associated with the offending behavior, replacing the previous pleasurable associations. However, it has been suggested by Morrison and Print (1995), that special care should be taken in using this intervention with adolescent groups in view of the fragility of self-esteem and interpersonal relationships.
Masturbatory Conditioning is based on the idea that if behavior is not reinforced, it will eventually become extinguished. One method devised by Marshall (1979), required the offender to masturbate to the deviant visual or auditory fantasy material, for up to an hour following ejaculation. However, research conducted by Becker & Kaplan (1993), suggests that while reductions in the level of deviant fantasies can be found, there is a problem in increasing arousal to appropriate fantasies. If there is no substitute of appropriate fantasies for deviant ones, then the final effect may result in a loss of fantasy experience. Fisher & McGregor (1996), suggest that if juveniles have previously experienced a vivid deviant fantasy life then this method may be beneficial. However, if this is not the case then this technique raises both practical and ethical issues for it may expose the juvenile to new material that was previously unknown (NCH 1992).
Vicarious Sensitization developed by Weinrott (1994) has been used with juvenile offenders. This involves visual and audible presentation of extremely aversive and individualized scenarios detailing the consequences of their sexual offending. For example being caught by a parent, the arrest story being covered on a television news program, movement through the criminal justice system and possible social difficulties. This intervention normally consists of twice weekly sessions lasting approximately twelve weeks.
Thought Stopping involves the juvenile implementing a strategy to interrupt a deviant thought as soon as it is identified. This could be simple saying "no" or plucking at an elastic band on the wrist at the time of the deviant thought or fantasy. Over time the juvenile would begin to think of the word "no" rather than say it aloud or think of the unpleasant physical sensation (Fisher & McGregor 1996), thus automatically interrupts the thought process.
Covert Sensitization and Reinforcement (Abel, Becker & Skinner 1983) involves the juvenile thinking about an unpleasant event at the point of imagining a deviant fantasy and incorporating a realistic escape route. There are three stages to the treatment: increasing the sexual arousal associated to the deviant act in the fantasy; a negative consequence associated with the deviant act; relief or escape from the negative consequences because of the successful avoidance of the act in the fantasy.
Psychopharmacological, Antilibidinal and Hormonal Therapies have been used with varying degrees of success in the control of deviant sexual interest in adult offenders (Hunter & Becker 1994). However, few studies examine their use with juvenile sex offenders. They stress that caution has been advised, in the report by the National Task Force of Juvenile Sexual Offending 1988, with regards the use of hormonal therapies with juveniles, because they may affect growth patterns.
Social Skills Training was the center of research conducted by Graves, Openshaw & Adams (1992). The Adolescent Social Skills Effectiveness Training Program was used, it consists of four educational elements: modeling, rehearsal, encouragement and homework assignments. There are eight separate social skills included within the program: giving positive feedback, giving negative feedback, accepting negative feedback, resisting peer pressure, problem solving, negotiation, following instructions and conversation. The research established that social skills development, is more likely to be substantially improved in a treatment program that offers a combination of traditionally therapies and social skills training, as opposed to therapy alone.
The research of Brannon & Troyer (1991) explored an alternative approach to the residential specialized, treatment of adolescent sex offenders. They examined the effectiveness of a residential peer group counseling program, that served both sexual and non-sexual offending adolescents within the same counseling groups. They recommend that Residential Peer Group Programs should, ideally, nurture a climate in which young people can explore and then choose between social and antisocial behavior. Juveniles need an opportunity to declare to peers and staff members their belief or disbelief that they can change and will benefit from changing their past behaviors. An atmosphere has to be created and maintained in which they can examine the role and legitimacy of authority. A level of communication needs to be used that enhances problem solving and normalizes the problems previously stereotyped as pathological and finally, a decision-making system should be implemented that recognizes individual participation and reinforces a willingness to help others.
Miner, Marques, Day and Nelson (1990) conducted research with sex offenders into the impact of relapse prevention. They suggest that Cognitive–behavioural programs that incorporate a range of ingredients, especially those that are focussed towards a number of separate change "targets", offer the best prospects of reducing re-offending amongst this particular group. Their study highlights the importance of community based relapse prevention work.
ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION Back to top
It seems obvious that juvenile sexual offenders should be held to account right from the start; therefore an early thorough assessment needs to be conducted. Shay Bilchik (1998) suggests that this should determine, within the context of family, school, peer group, community settings, the set of issues that treatment should address.
All offenders should be assessed prior to during and post treatment by suitable qualified personnel, in order to assess and evaluate individual progress throughout treatment. This would enable appropriate supervision of an offender, in order to prevent him or her slipping through treatment and receiving no benefit (Step Report 1994). Continual assessment enables treatment programs to evaluate individual progress and to compare them with other individuals or to compare different treatment programs.
Clinical Interviews for assessment have been the most popular method for gaining information of deviant behavior (Hunter & Becker 1994). Etiological issues are considered by Silva & Stanton (1996) to be vital in understanding sexual offending behavior. Attention should be placed on the age of onset and the learning histories of the juvenile’s sexual behavior. Specific individual variables include deviant and non-deviant sexual behaviors and fantasies; victimization history; psychopathology; personality traits; beliefs in rape myths; distorted beliefs about appropriate sexual behaviors, values and attitudes; history of delinquency; academic performance; and gender role conflicts (Silva & Stanton 1996) and ability to engage in treatment (Hollin 1996). Not all of these variables can be attributed to juveniles who commit sexual offences, nor are they associated with all delinquent offenders. However, Calder (1997) considers these as important variables that may predispose a juvenile to commit a sexual crime. The biggest drawback with regards Clinical Interview, is validity, for young offenders will often distort, deny or report difficulty in remembering the offences. One way around this is by using Direct Behavioral Observation. It is a useful source of information (Hollin 1996), direct observations either in the home prison, institution or community can reveal the true behavior of the juvenile.
Psychological Tests are used in the assessment of sexual offending behavior. They can be divided into three categories: tests of sexual interests and attitudes, objective personality tests and projective tests. Examples are the Multiphasic Sex Inventory designed by Nicholas & Molinder (1984). It has 21 clinical scales, including those differentiating subtypes of sex offender and one that measures sexual obsessions. Another is the Adolescent Sexual Interest Card Sort (Becker & Kaplan 1988). This consists of a series of sexual vignettes that the adolescent has to rates on a 3-point scale indicating whether he is aroused by thoughts of engaging in that behavior. Personalities and backgrounds of juvenile sex offenders were compared by Oliver et al. (1993), with other juvenile offenders, by using the Jesness Inventory. This revealed that the sex offender group had the least amount of previous contact with the mental health system. They also returned significantly lower social maladjustment scores than the non-violent offenders; the lower social maladjustment scores are said to be (Kunce & Hemphill 1987) indicators of positive prognosis and good adjustment.
Penile Plethysmography or Phallometric Assessment, measures the changes in penile tumescence when the offender is exposed to a variety of sexual and non-sexual stimuli. Hunter, Goodwin & Becker (1995) found that although Phallometric assessment of juvenile sex offenders may be of clinical value, practitioners should be cautioned from interpreting data in a manner parallel to that of adult sex offenders. The National Children’s Home Report (1992) did not recommend the use of this assessment measure in any circumstances. Although one third of the treatment programs in the U.S.A use this on a regular basis, to evaluate juveniles in treatment (Knapp & Stevenson 1989).
TREATMENT OUTCOMES Back to top
Its interesting that juveniles’ recidivistic behavior seldom includes sexual assault; in fact only 1.9% of the sexual offender sample were re-convicted for sex offences. But juvenile sex offenders do re-enter the criminal justice system more frequently than their non-sexual offending peers' (Davis & Leitenberg 1987). However, the largest percentage of re-convictions (22.6% for sexual offenders and 8.8% for non-sexual offenders), will be for crimes against property. Which may say something about the low-level aspirations of the sex offenders.
But research conducted by Snipe et al. (1998) found that juvenile sexual offenders compared to non-sexual offenders were significantly more likely to be arrested as adults for sexual offences; 9.7% of juvenile sexual offenders were arrested for sexual offences as adults, where 3.0% of their comparison group were arrested for sexual offences as adults. They also suggest that juvenile non-sexual offenders are less likely to repeat sexual offences as adults, than violent juvenile sexual offenders are. However, their research also revealed that non-sexual offenders were just as likely to be arrested for non-sexual offences as adults. The differences in adult arrests for property offences were 32.6% for non-sexual offenders and 16.1% for sexual offenders.
The studies highlighted in a review of treatment literature conducted by Gendreau & Andrews (1990) identified that the most successful interventions, while behavioral in nature, included a cognitive component in order to focus on the attitudes, values, and beliefs that support anti-social behavior. Cognitive behavioral programs draw on the Social Learning Theory and Cognitive Theory to inform practice (Hollin 1992). Research conducted by Izzo & Ross (1990), into Juvenile Rehabilitation Programs found that those that contained a cognitive component were twice as effective as those without.
Garrett in 1995 compared 111 studies between 1960 and 1983. These were based on juveniles in residential treatment programs. He found that residential programs did have a small effect on outcomes and that cognitive behavioral methods were significantly more productive than Psychodynamic and life skills programs. Groth (1989) suggests that services for adolescent sex offenders are best provided for within segregated management units, which comprise of a similar group of sexual offenders. It is also suggested by Risen & Koss (1987), that the majority of young people entering residential programs may have committed an "undetected" sexual assault and could require the same services as for detected offenders. This is supported with respect to the type and style of service, Andrews, Zinger, Hoge, Bonta, Gendreau and Cullen (1990a) suggest that some therapeutic approaches are not appropriate for general use with sexual offenders. Specifically, they argue that traditional Psychodynamic and non-directional Client-Centered Therapies are to be avoided within general samples of sex offenders because of their devious, manipulative behavior in "traditional" affective groups. However, Wexler (1997) states that today in America, the criminal justice professionals and correctional administrators are only too aware of the efficacy of the Therapeutic Community model in both the community and prison.
There are several common features that distinguish an effective, from a non-effective method of treatment for dealing with juvenile sex offenders. Any intervention must understand the methodology of the causes of crime and criminal behavior. Initial assessment and the appropriate intervention need to be allocated to the individual as soon as possible. Treatment must discover and work through exactly what contribution the individual made to the offence. Ethical awareness and responsibility, with respect to anti-criminal modeling, active participation, problem solving and firm and fair boundaries need to be undertaken. An organized and guided approach with clear structured aims, explicitly defined methods, delivered in a more directive client centered way of working, is crucial (Lipton 1983).
Structured, specific therapy may be more beneficial to sex offenders during adolescence than during adulthood. Early intervention may have preventative value (Oliver et al 1993). However, public demand for mandatory sex offender treatment suggests neither ignoring a sex offender nor increasing agency expenditure is acceptable. So, Brannon & Troyer (1991), suggest an integrated service approach to the group treatment of juvenile sex offenders, which may offer the most viable programming alternative available to many correctional agencies.
The recent research conducted by Sipe et al. (1998) recommends that dispositions for juvenile sexual offenders should be based on the nature of their presenting offence, not on cultural or clinical assumptions regarding their partiality for re-offending. The severity of the presenting offence should largely determine the handling or disposition of the adolescent. Predatory juvenile sexual offenders are in need of structured interventions. When young people are held accountable in a manner that is appropriate to the harm they may have inflicted, community perceptions of safety and justice are balanced against the seriousness of the offence.
The combination of specific techniques and the structure of a complete behavioral treatment program are considered by Morrison & Print (1995) to be determined on an individual basis to meet the needs of juveniles in particular. It is evident from the previous discussion that Cognitive Behavioral methods, which concentrate on the interrelationship of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and behavior, especially those that lead to criminal behavior, out perform other approaches. A program will include clear aims, well-trained multidisciplinary staff, an adherence to the objectives of the treatment philosophy, good managerial support, a commitment to evaluation, good mechanisms for conducting and applying this (McGuire 1995, and Wexler 1997). After successful completion of the treatment program, juveniles obviously must not be returned to the environment where the offence occurred without appropriate supervision and support (Bilchik (1998). Otherwise the chances of re-offending will be increased.
It follows that a revitalized juvenile justice system needs to be put into place; one that will ensure immediate and appropriate sentences, provide effective treatment, reverse trends in juvenile offending, and rebuild public confidence in and support for the juvenile justice system (Bilchik 1998). Paul Gendreau (1996) in his paper on "Offender Rehabilitation" illustrates several hurdles to future progress in the field of effective treatment of offenders. He identifies these as theoreticsm, failure to effect technology transfer and a deficiency of suitable training programs. The danger of theoreticsm is obvious; following too rigid a structure to the exclusion of other possibilities (as in traditional group therapy) and there are too few training programs to evaluate especially when a community program exists in a self-evaluating vacuum.
The literature reviewed has shown that there is a lack in the U.K of intervention evaluation, specifically in the field of juvenile treatment programs. There is a need for more general agreement on the effectiveness of programs and much more research into the outcome of these programs, unmuddled by political prejudices.
My own exposure of correctional facilities – Arizona (U.S.A) showed that some of the therapies/treatment methods discussed (in particular aversion therapy/covert sensitization/social skills training, coupled with group work within the therapeutic framework) do in fact work and these may be the ways forward.
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