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The Meanings of the Runes
Sources
There are several historical runic inscriptions, found on everything
from swords to stones to bronze pendants, which list the entire runic alphabet
in order. One of the oldest and most complete of these is the Kylver stone,
found in Gotland, Sweden and dating from the fifth century. Others are less
complete, but show a remarkable continuity in the order in which the runes
are listed. The only surviving written accounts of the actual names and meanings
of the runes, however, were not recorded until the advent of the Christian
era. Some of these manuscripts, which date from the 9th. Century until well
into 12th, are known as rune poems. These poems have a verse for each rune,
each of which begins with the rune itself and its name. Some of these poems
are more Pagan than others, particularly those from Iceland, where Christianity
was not yet as widespread as it was in the Anglo-Saxon regions.
The rune names themselves appear to have been passed down relatively
intact, and although no manuscript exists listing the names of the older,
Germanic runes, the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian rune poems agree to such
an extent that their common origin can be deduced. These names are probably
our best clue as to what the individual runes actually meant to the people
that used them.
Interpretation
The unique order of the fuþark and their traditional
division into three 'aetts' (a word meaning 'families' or 'groups') may be
of some significance in deciphering the complex interrelationships between
the runes. Several authors have noted certain pairings and groupings within
the order (cattle / aurochs, hagalaz / nauthiz / isa, etc.), but so far the
meaning of the overall pattern has remained a mystery. Recently, a few authors
(notably myself and Freya Aswynn) have independently developed systems of
interpreting the fuþark as a whole, using Norse mythology and literature
as a guide, and division into aetts as the underlying structure. Although
these efforts are mostly speculative, they do provide some insight into how
the Norse might have used the runes as a symbolic key to their understanding
of the physical and spiritual world.
One can approach the fuþark as a journey - a spiritual
odyssey in which the traveler encounters obstacles, receives gifts, and learns
vital lessons that will aid in their development as a human being. This process
is at once personal and mythic, following cycles and patterns that reflect
the Norse world-view. This world-view was fundamentally different from that
of the average 20th century Westerner, so a thorough understanding of the
myths, culture and lifestyle of the ancient peoples of northern Europe is
vital to a complete understanding of the runes.
What we now know as the runic alphabet seems to have developed
from two distinct sources - one magical, one literate. Pre-runic are symbols,
or hällristningar, have been found in various Bronze Age rock carvings,
primarily in Sweden. Some of these symbols are readily identifiable in the
later alphabets, while others represent ideas and concepts which were incorporated
into the names of runes (sun, horse, etc.). The exact meanings of these sigils
are now lost to us, as is their original purpose, but they are believed have
been used for divination or lot-casting, and it is fairly certain that they
contributed to the magical function of the later runic alphabets. There is
some debate over the origin of the "alphabet" aspect of the runes.
Cases have been made for both Latin and Greek derivation, but historical and
archaeological evidence strongly indicates a Northern Italic origin. The parallels
between the two alphabets are too close to be ignored, particularly in the
forms of the letters, as well as in the variable direction of the writing.
This would also explain why so many of the runes resemble Roman letters, since
both Italic and Latin scripts are derived from the Etruscan alphabet (itself
a branch of the Western Greek family of alphabets). This theory would place
the original creation of the futhark sometime before the 1st. Century c.e.,
when the Italic scripts were absorbed and replaced by the Latin alphabet.
Linguistic and phonetic analysis points to an even earlier
inception date, perhaps as far back as 200 b.c.e. When the northern tribes
began integrating the Italic alphabet into their own symbolic system, they
gave the letters names relating to all aspects of their secular and religious
lives, thus transforming their simple pictographs into a magical alphabet
which could be used for talismans, magical inscriptions and divination. The
name "futhark", like the word "alphabet", is derived from
the first few letters in the runic sequence, which differs considerably of
the Latin alphabet and is unique amongst alphabetic scripts. The futhark originally
consisted of 24 letters, beginning with F and ending with O, and was used
by the northern Germanic tribes of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Northern Germany.
This form of the runes is known as the Elder, or Germanic Futhark. Sometime
around the fifth century AD, changes occurred in the runes in Frisia (the
area around the northern Netherlands and north-western Germany). This period
coincided with the Anglo-Saxon invasions from this area and the appearance
of similar runes in the British Isles. The forms of several of the runes changed,
notably the runes for A/O, C/K, H, J, S, and Ng. Also, changes in the language
led to between five and nine runes being added to the alphabet to compensate
for the extra sounds, and several runes were given different corresponding
letters. This alphabet has become known as the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. In Scandinavia,
the Elder Futhark remained in use until some time around the eighth century
(the time of the Eddas), when changes the Old Norse language occurred, and
corresponding changes in the runic alphabet were made to accommodate the new
sounds. However, unlike the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, the Younger Futhark (as it
is now called) reduced the number of from 24 to 16, and several runes came
to represent multiple sounds. The forms of the runes were also changed and
simplified.
There are several variations of this futhark - Danish, long
branch, Norwegian, dotted, etc. form of the runic alphabet spread from Denmark
north into Sweden and Norway, and was carried into Iceland and Greenland by
the Vikings. It is possible that they were also brought to North America with
the Vinland expeditions, but so far no authenticated inscriptions have been
found. The Runic Revival The runes, primarily in their Younger form, remained
in common use until well into the 17th. century. Up until this time, they
were everything from coins to coffins, and in some places their use was actually
sanctioned by the Church. Even the common knew simple runic spells, and the
runes were frequently consulted on matters of both public and private interest.
Unfortunately, with the magical arts, they were officially banned in 1639
as part of the Church's efforts to "drive the devil out of with Europe".
The rune masters were either executed or went underground, and the knowledge
of the runes may well have died with them. Some that the knowledge was passed
on in secret, but it is almost impossible to separate ancient traditions from
more modern esoteric philosophies in such cases. Perhaps the darkest period
in the history of runic studies was their revival by German scholars connected
with the Nazi movement in the that 20's and 30's. What began as a legitimate
folkloric resurgence unfortunately became so tainted by Nazi ideology and
racism that the research from this period was rendered all but useless to
any serious student of runic lore. After the Second World War, the runes fell
into disfavour as a result of their association with Nazism, and very little
was written about them until the fifties and sixties. It was not until the
mid-eighties, with the widespread appeal of the "New Age" movement
and revival of Pagan religions (especially the Asatru movement) that the runes
regained their popularity as both a divinatory system and a tool for self-awareness.
