WRITES:
Over the years, various definitions of "theatre" (drama) have been advanced (Etherton, 1982). Some point to the dramatic and others that which is drama- the formalised imitation of an action. Some definitions argue for the necessary presence of the audience during such imitative acts while others view it from the perspective of content as comprising of music, drama, and dance. Much as "theatre" is an amalgamation of music, dance, puppetry, the common grounds of these definitions point to imitation, and the presence of an audience as cardinal. Beyond the issue of spectatorism, the other common area of the definitions is the affirmation of real life as the source of drama . It is worthwhile to trace theatre from these commonalties to avoid biases inherent in the varying definitions. Asiedu acknowledges one such unbiased definition offered by the dictionary:
A composition in prose or verse, adapted to be acted
on stage in which a story is related by means of dialogue
and action, and is represented with accompanying gestures,
costume and scenery as in real life.9
From this standpoint, two main forms of drama can be identified in Ghana. These forms indigenous (often referred to as traditional ), and alien (literary) are the manifestations of the Ghanaian culture, and the manifestation of the Ghanaian culture meeting the European or alien traditions. Whereas by a broad, generalised classification the traditional and literary can be described as representative of the two cultures - Africa and European, there is evolving from the literary group a third form- 'Popular' that is a synthesis of both cultures. In this writing, I trace in brief the historical perspective of these three forms (traditional, literary, and popular) as a background exploration for an associate form like Theatre for Development that benefits and festers from those aforementioned traditions.
The existence of traditional drama has also been a subject of debate by scholars. Whereas some argue for its non-existence , others strongly assert its existence . Scholars who assert its existence purport that their opponents other scholars look at drama through the lenses of westernised standards. Oscar Brockett makes this evident:
In studying African theatre, most of us soon become aware of its "otherness",
its unlikeness to the traditions with which we are most familiar ...When we turn
to African theatre, we may be inclined to impose on it Western assumptions and
associations, thereby seriously misperceiving it.6
Indeed, then indigenous drama exists and it is important to examine its shades in Ghana. Traditional Ghanaian drama assumes two varying styles- sacred and secular. These are manifest in festivals, myth plays, rituals, and storytelling sessions. In fact, traditional drama pervades the very existence of the people from childbirth to death. In the two forms (sacred and secular), I identify two cardinal features of the society 'Education' and 'Religion' that have accounted for these forms even though in these forms the presence of entertainment can not be denied.
Certainly, the traditional society that was predominantly engaged in peasant farming needed to shake tiredness, stress, and boredom off the masses through 'theatre-therapy' . The main approach was through entertainment rather than formal clinical procedure. Thus in the traditional set up the need was realised for the doses of messages like bitter pills to be sweetened by a sugar coating - entertainment. In these activities, imitation or the assumption of a character other than one's own is a very common feature as these activities span the complexities of dance through mime to drama.
In fact one can recall the storytelling sessions on moonlit nights when any member of the participating audience could advance and enhance the dramatic presentation by assuming the role of a character in the world of the make-believe. By participating in these sessions, morals and code of social conduct are inculcated in the youth and the old. It served as a non-gender biased learning process of eloquence, and proverbs. The crux of the 'curriculum' is teaching the masses to play, and learn from and about Ananse- evil, thereby the masses learn not to be like Ananse.
Indigenous drama should, however, not be limited to the confines of storytelling as exists in the rendition and performance of folktales only. It should be opened up to embrace all modes of recounting historical events. The indigenous form has coded historical events into celebrations - festivals that exhibit drama and theatre. Indeed some of the acts may be termed as dramatic but the presence of drama can not be dismissed. The Hogbetsotso festival of the Anglo, the Homowo of the Ga, and the Aboakyer of the Efutu attest to this fact.
It is difficult to ignore the place of dance in these ceremonies, and indeed the adowa, bamaya, and agbekor have stories in their form. This is to suggest that the presence of the dance at such communal meetings, in itself, is a language of history- a process of storytelling and of remembrance. The remembrance of the 'significants' of history goes beyond the spectrum of events to the ever dynamic feature of most Ghanaian and indeed African traditions- the remembrance of distinguished and outstanding personalities and statesmen. Call them heroes and heroines, idols, or role models, if you like, but they are the revered and ever-remembered ancestors.
The issue of whether 'ritual' can be termed 'drama' has generated a lot of debate for it is quite difficult to distinguish when a performer is imitating and when the thin line of imitation is traversed. For in the traditional societies this line gets to be crossed very often by what can be classified as a part of the discourse on the issue of possession and the being in a state of trance in African theatre. In African theatre the possession of the actor by other surrealist entities be it spirits, the ancestors, or the gods to assume the personality other than his own is an occurrence that is well-accepted. This is readily associated with such performances as the Akom, and Tsigari dances. In these and other performances, it is the believe that the performer can easily be inhabited and is more often controlled by a 'foreign' spirit in the act of performance rather than the performer having the power and liberty to imitate it.
The indigenous drama has been affected by a host of factors that seem to have threatened its existence and form that I can not discuss in this writing. However, the effects are felt all around us. One such manifestation can be felt through the decrease in the number of people involved in communal celebration when compared to the level of participation in the past. Indeed, Atwia Ekumfi stands as one of the few surviving traditions of storytelling to this day.
This not withstanding, indigenous drama has served to construct the so-called modern with subject matter, form, structure, and characteristics. One can trace the roots of African drama (literary) from these indigenous sources. This potent source of artistic essence can also be identified with other theatrical activities such as dance. As the literary drama found roots in the indigenous, the 'traditional drama' also rejuvenated beyond what can be described as the mere rush to attract tourists. Thus in the indigenous communities, drama can still be witnessed as it has endured the onslaught of persecution or eradication. This dynamic presence of drama in traditional society in these present times supports the rightful refusal to see the indigenous form as falling outside what can be described as 'modern' .
It should thus be noted that acting- the putting on of an act or assuming a character other than one's own, is not a practice that is restricted to the dictates of the period although to a large extent the period has shaped and influenced its form. Human beings have acted in the past and still do practice this age-old tradition.
The so-called 'modern' drama in Ghana can be traced to the colonial era where the educational institutions and the Christian institutions introduced this alien mode of presentation. It may have started off with a multi-headed objective but the desire to teach the Ghanaian to be Western can not be denied (Roscoe, 1981). It also served to aid the propagation of the doctrines of Christendom. These activities although of different magnitudes in staging, are comparable to the medieval times when theatre heightened its didactic functions. The educational institutions, however, were more instrumental in sustaining the form through dramatic presentations by schools including Mfantsipim School, Achimota College, and Wesley Girls High School. These schools presented dramatic performances that witnessed the exaltation of the works of Shakespeare. In fact the evolution of Concert parties (Popular form) is also traced to such school productions that saw the mastery of Master Yalley's attempt at a 'Ghanaian vaudeville'.
With the birth of a new consciousness that effected the birth of a new nation, another era of dramatic presentations was born to replace Shakespeare. The introduction of the Ghanaian concerns into dramatic literature was not an easy task. It is therefore not surprising that the works of the early period writers were basically modelled on European standards. Indeed it is often the case that new works are modelled on old experienced types, but these early writers failed to recognise the traditional drama as a prototype source that could be modelled into different manifestations. It is therefore quite ironic that the Blinkards that castigates the blind copying of European practices, is a critique of Kobina Sakyi's own work.
The reconstruction of dramatic literature accessed inputs from Joe de Graft, F.K. Fiawoo, J. B. Danquah, Casley- Hayford, and Efua Sutherland. These playwrights blazed the trail for the next generation of writers to lift dramatic literature to yet a significant level. The contributions of the following personalities should be noted; Ama Ata Aidoo, Asiedu Yirenkyi, Martin Owusu, Ben Abdallah, Yaw Asare, and Mawugbe. I must, however, make mention of other similar movements in parts of Africa by Ngugi Wa Thiongo, Wole Soyinka, J.P. Clark and Ola Rotimi that had an impact either directly or indirectly on the ideological inclination of the Ghanaian writers.
These years of reconstruction has not only seen the addressing of Ghanaian concerns in plays but has also seen the integration of the traditional mode of presentation (staging), and the dynamic synthesis of drama, music, and dance into dramatic literature. These giant strides have been seen by many as the gradual concretisation of a form that with fine tuning can in the future be labelled as 'Authentic African theatre'. Whether this exercise of achieving an authentic African form is worthwhile, or the subtle arguments on whether a form can ever be referred to as being 'African' in view of the inter-cultural influences is another issue that I do not pursue in this writing.
The so-called 'modern' and the indigenous have not been as separated as most literature seems to imply. Indeed the indigenous has not failed to furnish the dramatic table of the 'modern' with dishes that can only be described as of indigenous source and flavour. The works of Efua Sutherland (The Marriage of Anansewaa), Martin Owusu (The Story Ananse Told), Mohammed Ben Abdallah (The Witch of Mopti, The Verdict of the Cobra), and Yaw Asare (Ananse In the Land of Idiots) come readily to mind. This co-existence of the indigenous and foreign dramatic modes, and styles has besides the Elitist Theatre evolved two forms namely Concert Party and Theatre for Development. Concert Party as hinted on earlier is traceable in Ghana to the celebration of Empire's Day in the educational institutions. It is reported that during such celebrations Master Yalley put on performances that are regarded as the basis of the growth of this art form . The Johnsons' took over the art and sooner than later, the proliferation of Concert Party groups was visited on the nation (Agovi, 1990).
These roving theatre companies were highly 'nomadic' and they often created their plays and dramatic presentations while travelling to another town or village for a performance. Their act was a mixture of western and indigenous forms with guitar bands providing music, jokers, and magicians to keep the audience from sleeping, and an all-male troupe of players who played female roles to the amusement of the audience (Barber, 1997).
It must be noted that until quite recently, the Concert Party tradition was almost extinct. Some perspectives trace the reasons to the influx of television, and video. Others trace it to a natural process of fallow after a long period of harvest. Whatever reasons are advanced one element stands- the realization of the characteristic nature of a synthesis of both cultures. This art form has often been referred to as Popular Theatre (Barber, 1997).
Yet another art form referred to as popular is the art form often termed also as Theatre for Development (TFD). TFD is often termed 'Popular' because it represents the desires of the masses. It is important to emphasis the distinguishing features that separate 'Popular' from 'People's . It should also be mentioned that for this TFD art form a wide range of nomenclature abound (Breitinger, 1994; Abah, 1997). TFD is a modern manifestation of the fusion of traditions as it taps on what is indigenous in the communities and then fine-tunes it with contemporary ideological concepts, and communal and bureaucratic forms of discourse and development practices to evoke this rather dynamic art form. The combination of what is native and in that sense old, with what appears current draws the masses to identify with the process as both indigenous and 'modern'. This identification yields a higher level of patronage and participation. It is this involvement by the masses in communal concerns, that eventually leads to the solution of such communal problems. The aftermath of a problem-solved is the usual 'praise singing' of the art form that makes it widely known and accepted- popular. I hereby maintain that the use of 'popular' in reference to TFD is embedded herein.
The radio dramas that used to be very popular in recent past periods seem to have lost their appeal. With the advent of broadcasting in Ghana from the era of Governor Guggissberg, the airwaves have been used as a means of communicating and of the propagation of philosophies and ideologies. As a student in school in those days, one can not fail to mention the school broadcast programmes by the Ghana Education Service on radio. Older folks can recall the Nkrumah ideological broadcasts on "Ghanaian" radio and on the Guinean radio while in exile.
The power that a radio station wields has often manifested itself in the refusal of central governments to allow for uncensored broadcasts. It is therefore not surprising that any militaristic attempt at a take-over of government especially in Ghana had the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation House as its target. This mode of broadcasting has the potential of reaching the highest number of listeners than any other means of mass communication in Ghana.
Realising the potential of radio and the dynamic nature of theatre in educating the masses, a fusion of the two forms had to be forged somehow. The result is what is referred to as 'radio plays' or 'radio theatre'. In this fusion the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation stands out as one such company or corporation that has distinguished itself in the use of this form of education. With the proliferation of the FM radio stations in Ghana, the trend has changed rather unfortunately. Most of the radio programmes now are either talk shows or the play back of purely musical tracks. I must however mention the role of Joy FM at an attempt to maintain the good practice of radio plays through their weekly magazine programme that deals with family and teenage issues.
Much as this means of reaching the masses is effective it still lacks the visual aspect of the production that can be identified with a live theatrical presentation and with television broadcasts. This is the feeling of having the image before your presence.
The television thus was another mode of communication that combined the audio and visual aspects of communication. The television mode of communication is not as far-reaching as the radio mode. The use of these expensive TV sets is centred around the cities that have access to electricity, however, television broadcasting has still played its role in the development of yet another mode of theatre that can be termed TV dramas or TV theatre. In these theatres, the masses who are privileged to access them do not only see the images of Ghanaians living out social issues and concerns, but they also get to hear them speak the indigenous languages. This is not to suggest that all TV dramas use the local languages for indeed I acknowledge the existence of the former 'Thursday Theatre' now the 'TV Theatre' programme on GTV Station that employs the English Language. My use of the term "TV drama" does not reflect the mere playback of recorded stage dramas but rather the re-staging of dramas purposely for the TV medium.
These TV dramas have manifested themselves in programmes such as the 'Show Case', 'Osofo Dadzie', 'Keteke' which later become 'Obra', and 'Daakye'. Television dramas have featured on the air since the 1970's till date. The success enjoyed by these forms resulted in the evolution of situational comedies, and serials on the Ghanaian TV since the 1990's. The notable programmes include 'Ultimate Paradise', 'Too Much to Lose', 'Inspector Bediako', 'Taxi Driver', and quite recently (2000) 'Kejetia'. It must however, be mentioned that 'Ultimate Paradise' was performed in the English language and has suffered criticism for its attempt at a foreign accent. This attempt at a foreign accent should not be taken as the representation of all the TV dramas.
It is interesting in present times to see the different manifestations of all these dramatic art forms discussed. The indigenous forms are flourishing and still are a rich resource base for contemporary works (Traore, 1972). The so-called 'modern' drama still lives through literary dramas and TV theatre. The popular forms of drama are also emerging and taking shape and in this wise the Concert Party is strides ahead in form development than TFD. The more recent form TFD has a lot of development to achieve if it is to be accepted and utilised by the masses.
It is in this wise that SPA has been very instrumental. I can not end this without touching on Children's Theatre that seems to be on the decline. Very little is seen of theatre specifically directed at children. It is surprising that the Koliko -puppet show that for so long featured on GBC TV is no more. The SPA again has taken the lead in this rescue attempt through its outreach programmes to schools and its Drama in Education Programmes. The occasional invitation from SPA to Secondary Schools around Accra to attend such theatrical performances presented by the SPA at the Efua Sutherland Drama Studio is a subtle attempt at courting the youth and indeed children to the theatre.
Will that these plays had been specifically written, and directed for them, instead of their frequent feeding on plays that are for adults in language, issues, and presentation. I must also commend the organisers and sponsors of Studrafest who also share the vision of salvaging the child.
I believe, however, that if theatre is to flourish the next century and not be content with the occasional Open day and Speech day dramatic sketches the outreach programmes must begin with the children at the nursery level. When the children are brought up to appreciate theatre it certainly will be a difficult task for them to depart from it.