STRESS

STRESS 1

THE DEFINITION OF STRESS 1

THE SYMPTOMS OF STRESS 1

A FRAMEWORK TO EXPLAIN HOW STRESS OCCURS 1

WORK-RELATED STRESS 1

SOURCES OF STRESS AT WORK 2

THE JOB DEMANDS - JOB CONTROL MODEL (KARASEK,1979) 2

THE COSTS OF POOR OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH 2

STRESS MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION 2

MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION AND OUTCOMES 2

CHANGING THE SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS 2

 

 

 

 

THE DEFINITION OF STRESS

Stress is a very difficult concept to define.  The word stress originates from the Latin word stringere, meaning ‘to draw tight’.  In the early days stress became associated with the idea of external forces exerting pressure on an individual, producing strain.  Newer theories of stress look at the interaction between a person and his environment.  Cooper (1996), describes a stress as ‘any force that pushes a psychological or physical factor beyond its range of stability, producing a strain within that individual.’

 

Perhaps a better way to describe stress is in the context of an individual’s perceptions.  ‘If pressures are too heavy or last too long, so that a person perceives him or herself to be unable to cope successfully, the physical and psychological reactions commonly known as stress occur’.  (Quine, 1998)

 

THE SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

As stress begins to have an effect on the body and mind it can result in a range of symptoms.  Stress has been implicated in the development of a wide variety of behaviours and illnesses.  It has been linked with a number of emotional behaviours such as anxiety, aggression, depression, frustration, moodiness and low self esteem.  It has also been associated with health-compromising behaviours such as smoking, poor diet and lack of exercise.  More seriously, however, stress has been linked by stress researchers and medics to severe illnesses such as coronary heart disease (heart attacks, strokes and high blood pressure) and mental illness.

 

It is very clear that stress can have far-reaching effects on the individual and on society.  The devastating effects of stress on the health and happiness of an individual and the huge costs involved are becoming more and more of a problem which must be addressed.

 

A FRAMEWORK TO EXPLAIN HOW STRESS OCCURS

In order to understand the process of stress occurring, Cummings and Cooper (1979) have produced a theoretical framework.  An individual will attempt to keep his life in a steady state.  When faced with the threat of disruption to this secure state, the individual will experience stress.  When faced with stress 2 outcomes are possible.  Firstly an individual might adjust his behaviour to enable himself to cope.  Secondly, an individual may fail to cope with the stress causing it to continue.  In this situation, it is probable that the continued stress may have negative effects.

From this framework, it could be argued that individuals can be taught strategies to enable them to cope and manage their stress more effectively.

 

WORK-RELATED STRESS

It is well documented that work is a great source of stress for a large number of people. Surveys indicate that up to 60% of all employees will suffer from work-related stress at some point in their lives.  Every job contains some element of stress.  The pressures that go along with responsibility and the ordinary demands of the job are part of the routine.  Such pressures are not necessarily harmful.  In fact, they often have a positive effect on motivation and job satisfaction.  However, there is a limit to the amount of stress that employees can take.  Beyond that limit, their health may suffer.  Researchers have found that stress-related illness affects both high and low status workers.  It is a widespread phenomena, affecting many people in many different work situations.

 

SOURCES OF STRESS AT WORK

A number of researchers have looked into the causes of work stress. Cartwright and Cooper have argued that workplace stress is primarily caused by fundamentals of change, lack of control and high workload.  By looking at causes of workplace stress in more detail, Cooper et al. (1988) have identified 5 main categories of work stress :-

 

1.    Factors intrinsic to the job

2.    Role in the organisation

3.    Relationships at work

4.    Career development

5.    Organisational structure and climate

 

THE JOB DEMANDS - JOB CONTROL MODEL (KARASEK,1979)

This model has become highly influential and has provided the basis for many studies into job stress over the years.  The model looks at how a lack of control at work can contribute to workplace stress.  Karasek argues that an individual’s personal belief in his control over a work situation is of great importance.  This model suggests that job strain, a stress outcome linked with physical and mental health problems, will occur in jobs that are high in demands and low in controllability.  Karasek identified such jobs as ‘high strain’ jobs.

 

The model was used in a study on nurses by Fox et al. (1993).  Their results have suggested that perhaps work related strain in nurses could be reduced if they could were given more control over their delivery of patient care and other aspects of their work.  It is argued that this control could help nurses to better manage the demands placed upon them and in turn is likely to reduce their stress.

 

 

THE COSTS OF POOR OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

Stress related illness shows itself in a number of ways which can result in increased costs for the employer.  Higher rates of sickness absence, reduced performance and high staff turnover may be the result of too much stress. 

 

Since I could not reach any data about Turkey, it may be beneficial here to give examples from U.K. that the situation in U.K. has now gone even further in that employers are paying directly for stress-related illnesses through workers’ compensation claims. According to the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, employers are under a duty to ensure the safety of their employees.  This duty appears to extend to both physical and mental health but this matter still requires clarification.  Because of this lack of clarity within the law, The Health and Safety Executive has been pushing for legislation to cover stress management in organisations.  In May 1995, they issued guidelines for employers on the subject of occupational health.  As of yet, no new legislation has been brought out.  However, due to the increasing severity of the problem it is believed that effective stress management will become a legal requirement in every organisation in the next few years. Stress related illnesses account for a large proportion of sickness absence within the U.K. workforce both in the public and private sectors.  It has been suggested that between 40-100 million working days are lost through sickness absence every year.  It has been estimated that approximately 40% of all sickness absence is linked to stress related factors and that this is costing the U.K. up to 10% of GDP.

 

STRESS MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION

There are a number of options to consider when looking at the prevention of stress in the workplace, which according to Cooper (1996), based on Murphy (1988), can be termed as primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of prevention. Primary prevention is concerned with taking action to reduce stressors or sources of stress. Secondary prevention is concerned with the detection and management of stress related symptoms by implementing stress management training. Tertiary prevention is concerned with the recovery process of individuals suffering from stress through stress counselling.

 

To develop an effective organisational strategy for stress management, employers need to integrate these three approaches.

 

MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION AND OUTCOMES

DeFrank & Cooper (1987), according to Palmer & Dryden (1996), developed an expasion of perspective in a scheme viewing levels of stress management interventions and outcomes. They identified three levels, focusing on: the individual, the individual-organisational interface, and the organisation.

 

Interventions are needed at all levels, from the individual to the organisation. Most strategies are aimed toward the individual, but what is needed is a strategy to reduce organisational stressors and the provision of stress counselling within an organisation.

 

CHANGING THE SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS

There has been considerable activity in the stress management and counselling level but the organisational level strategies are relatively less common. This is because, particularly at organisational level, we cannot develop a global strategy as one size does not fit all. (However, Elkin & Rosch (1990) summarise a useful model for organisational strategies to reduce stress)

 

Many of the strategies at this level are aimed at increasing employee participation and autonomy. It has been recognised, according to Arnold et al (1998), that social support, control/job discretion or autonomy and coping behaviour perform an important role in moderating the stress response.