Major Factors and Issues Influencing Restoration of the Everglades Chris French Dan Lopez ABE 2062 Group Project Team #2 April 13, 2001 OBJECTIVE The purpose of this report is to present the major elements involved in the restoration of the Everglades. A portion of the report will introduce opposing points of view regarding restoration efforts. The debate material will focus on ecological ideals verse industrial demands. The main viewpoints being debated are that of the agricultural industry, which depends on exploiting the everglades as a resource, and that of activists interested in reinstating the natural hydrology of the Everglades. The Results section will contain these conflicting points of view, and they will be addressed again in the Conclusion. The reader will gain an understanding of the controversial Everglades topics currently facing the Water Management District, Florida and Federal legislatures, and other parties involved in management of the Everglades. The report will also show the importance of engineering in the restoration of the Everglades. RATIONALE The Florida Everglades is the most environmentally threatened park in the nation - the list of ecological concerns seems endless. Most of the problems stem from the altered hydrology of the everglades due to agricultural demands, flood control, and other forms development. The water table of the Everglades is naturally at a delicate equilibrium. Once the equilibrium was disturbed by development, the water table started fluctuating from high to low levels. Droughts and floods alike cause problems for the Everglades. The Everglades has been altered such that 2/3 of the area depends on the rain received by 1/3 of the original watershed. The amount of water the Everglades receives is only one half the original amount; there is not enough water to sustain the ecological systems. The original Everglades also maintained a higher water level for a greater period of time. In the dry season, the original, greater volume of water would allow a gradual decrease in water level. Now, with less available water, the water that does collect in impounded ponds is not sufficient for this gradual decrease in water level. (2) When regions of the Everglades are filled with excess water, an unnatural hydroperiod occurs. These abnormal wet cycles are harmful to the ecosystem of the area. (1) Due to the altered hydroperiods, much of the natural habitat has been destroyed. This, coupled with the frequent droughts, has a detrimental effect on the wildlife. There are 14 endangered animal species in the Everglades, and many more populations are on the decline. Wading birds and water animals are the most affected by low water levels because their food sources are destroyed. (2) The tiny fish that are food for many birds certainly cannot live in a dried up pond, and therefore birds also are affected. Phosphorus and nitrogen are by-products of agricultural fertilization. When runoff from farms seeps into the Everglades water system, it causes unnatural eutrophic conditions. Currently, there is a phosphorus pollution limit in the Everglades of 20 parts per billion. However, this limit may still be too high. Restoration efforts would help reduce the phosphorous pollution level. (1) * Soils are under water for shorter periods of time, and have been oxidized (the organic component has been decomposed by bacteria) and lost as a result. * Farming introduced higher nutrient loads, and water management canals spread those nutrients into the northern portion of the Everglades. Since the EAA is upstream from most of the Everglades, these changes have affected hydrology and water quality to some degree throughout the entire South Florida ecosystem, and have altered vegetative, wildlife, and marine communities. BACKGROUND In less than one hundred years we have rerouted, uprooted and damaged the Everglades to a state of biological collapse. (1) The central section of the historic Everglades ecosystem is now a series of water storage or conservation areas managed primarily to provide flood control for developed East Coast communities. The Original Everglades. The original flow of water started at the Kissimmee Basin and then went through Lake Okeechobee. From Lake Okeechobee, the water meandered to the south-southeast into the area now occupied by the Water Conservation Areas and on into what is now the Everglades National Park. The flow of water ends in Florida Bay, south of the Everglades. This shallow sheet of water flowed at a slow enough pace to create a contiguous wetland for much of the year. The term "Everglades" means "river of grass," which refers to the sawgrass that grows in much of the region. Sawgrass absorbs natural organic and mineral material as the water flowed south, creating an oligotrophic environment. (3) In 1850 the federal government passed the Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act, which granted the State of Florida the right to do what it wanted with the Everglades. Private organizations tried to drain the Everglades to make the land "useful," but these attempts failed. Public works projects were eventually successful and managed to create 400 miles of drainage canals by the 1930s. EAST COAST PROTECTIVE LEVEE At the eastern edge of the Everglades, a levee was constructed to stop water from flowing east. Canals were dug from the levee to the ocean to drain the water. With this land no longer flooded, it could be used for agriculture. This particular land is now covered with urban development. The East Coast Protective Levee isolated 160 square miles of Everglades and severed an additional 775 square miles of tributary watershed. LAKE OKEECHOBEE The tributary watershed of Lake Okeechobee was diverted through canals to the Gulf and the Atlantic. These canals were at the head of a 1400-mile canal network in South Florida. The canals disrupted the water flow from Lake Okeechobee to the Florida bay via the Everglades. Severe floods in 1926 and 1928 prompted the construction of levees to surround the lake. EVERGLADES AGRICULTURAL AREA The Everglades ecosystem has been fundamentally altered by the construction of the Central and South Florida water management project, which facilitated the draining and use of the Everglades Agricultural Area and urban growth in South Florida. (3) Eventually, more levees were constructed around Lake Okeechobee. These levees enclosed 1,500 square miles of marsh referred to as the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA). Approximately one-third of the northern Everglades was diked and drained to become the Everglades Agricultural Area, irrigated with water stored in Lake Okeechobee. Seven pumping stations control the water table in the EAA; the water discharges from these stations are unnatural, putting stress on the ecosystems of the Everglades to the south. Most of the water stored in this area is lost through evaporation and rarely reaches the Everglades. (1) The EAA has an important role in the Everglades water management system. This includes flood protection, land drainage for agricultural development, prevention of saltwater intrusion, water supply for irrigation, regulation of groundwater elevations, and recharge of well fields. (3) WATER CONSERVATION AREAS As a drought protection measure, shallow impoundments (called Water Conservation Areas, or WCAs) were created on the eastern edge of the Everglades. They are interconnected with a network of canals controlled by gates. This system of canals and impoundments actually speeds water flow through the Everglades and causes a detrimental hydroperiod. Water stored in the WCAs also provides a dry season water supply for the Lower East Coast of Florida. The Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge (WCA-1) has also managed to protect wildlife habitat, and has maintained a more natural hydropattern than in other areas of the Everglades. SHARK RIVER SLOUGH Originally, the Shark River Slough was a natural channel through the everglades. This region was cut in half and severe ecological damage was caused in the northeast sector due to lack of water. ACTIVISM A large part of the southern portion of the Everglades wetland was designated Everglades National Park in 1947. Since 1983, the State of Florida has spent over $2.3 billion and acquired more than 1 million acres to prevent further damage to the Everglades ecosystem. (6) Congress mandated minimum flows to the Everglades. Unfortunately, ecological timing was not accounted for when the minimum flows were decided. The Everglades depends on certain amounts of water during specific periods of the year. The Rainfall Plan was authorized by congress to help correct the water problems troubling the Everglades. The Water Management District experimented with different solutions, but the effectiveness of these solutions to handle pre-drainage conditions is questionable. A change in administration in 1992 resulted in negotiations for an Everglades 'clean up' plan. The negotiations led to the Everglades Protection Act, which included on-farm practices to reduce the effect of agriculture on the Everglades. Artificial marshes were created to filter nutrient run-off from the farms and hopefully reduce the phosphorous content in the Everglades. The expense of this clean up plan was about $300 million In 1994 the Florida legislature went beyond the provisions of the Everglades Protection Act and passed the Everglades Forever Act. This act made restoration efforts by establishing requirements for surface water improvement and management. Its goals were to improve both water quality and quantity, to return the Everglades to its natural duration of inundation, and to stop the spread of foreign plant species in the ecosystem. (3) SURGAR CANE BACKGROUND Sugar cane is a crop that has been cultivated in southern Florida since the 1920's. Approximately 425,000 acres of sugar cane are cropped each year, primarily in the area surrounding the lower half of Lake Okeechobee known as the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA). The proximity of the crops to the lake is essential for agriculture, as during winter the lake's massive volume helps maintain a decent temperature in the area. Sugarcane is planted and harvested in the fall and winter seasons, when the water level and temperature are best suited for the growth and maturation of the cane. EVERGLADES FOREVER ACT: Effects on Agriculture The Everglades Forever Act of 1994 significantly changed the way that business is handled in the EAA. Aside from making official the sentiments of both environmentalists and agriculturalists alike, that the Everglades must be preserved and restored, the Act set into motion several mechanisms towards the actualization of said goal. Included in the act were provisions for assistance on the part of the Agriculture sector, particularly sugar croppers (as sugar is by far the most common crop in the EAA), in terms of finances. Over the next 20 years, the sugar industry will commit $320 million towards the restoration of lands. Water flow to the Everglades will by increased by 28% through re-routing of rivers and release of stored waters. Also, 40,000 acres of now-EAA lands will be converted into an artificial filtering marsh, so as to cleanse the water that leaves the EAA before it reaches the water table. While the water runoff from farms is currently treated to a level twice as pure as rainwater, the goal has been set to where the water runoff will be 10 times as pure as rainwater by 2006 CE. Urban runoff, which contains four times as much phosphorus as agricultural runoff does, will also be treated under the new law. And, often noted as the most important change, the timing and quantity of water released into the Everglades Water Table will be regulated, so that natural patterns can be enhanced and the Everglades will be able to revitalize. APPROACH OVERVIEW Restoration of the Everglades refers mostly to restoring the natural water flow. Human interests, such as agriculture and development, will certainly not give up the lands they have claimed from the Everglades. However the land remaining and the Everglades Nation Park can be restored to their original hydrology. The main undecided issue that is still subject to debate is how much of the Everglades will be cleaned up and the omnipresent question of who will pay for the restoration. According to the US Dept. of the Interior's Programmatic Environmental Assessment of the EAA, restoring the Everglades ecosystem will require the following efforts: * Improving quality, quantity, timing, and distribution of freshwater flow to and through the natural Everglades and to estuaries; * Restoring the natural organic soil formation processes and arresting soil subsidence; * Regaining lost water storage capacity; * Improving water quality, including reduction of nutrients, and ensuring appropriate water quality consistent with designated uses including restoration and protection of the natural systems; * Improving wildlife habitat quality and heterogeneity; * Helping provide for sustainable populations of native plant and animal species, with special attention to threatened, endangered, or species of special concern; * Halting and/or reversing the conditions causing the spread of exotic and nuisance species that are threatening areas as a result of disturbances such as nutrient enrichment; * Ensuring adequate water supply and flood protection for urban, natural, and agricultural needs, and; * Providing water management that supports economic diversity and sustainability derived from the natural and developed systems. (3) RESTORING NATURAL WATER FLOW Other water storage possibilities include a reservoir north of Lake Okeechobee. This reservoir would periodically (once every four of five years) release water to the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie estuaries. Another possibility is to raise the level in Lake Okeechobee. The lake would be regulated similar to the storage north of the lake--only storing water in the lake during large flood events. However, the adverse effects of flooding the littoral zone along the lake may outweigh the benefits of using the lake for increased storage capacity. Another problem with using the lake is the water quality concerns that limit back-pumping water from the EAA. (3) WATER POLLUTION Besides rerouting water flow, reducing pollution is also a major concern. Pollution reduction methods require the same type of ecological engineering as water flow restoration. One well-known method that can be quickly implemented is retention. However, retention inhibits water from getting to the Everglades. Lake Okeechobee has been considered a possible retention area, yet phosphorus levels are already too high. Yet another method for pollution reduction is treatment of the water. This involves using an artificial marsh as a filter/buffer. The marsh would allow clean water to pass on to the Everglades. According to Nova Southeastern University, the best management techniques for agriculture in order to reduce nutrient run-off into the Everglades include the following: * Covering crops to reduce wind and water erosion; * Spreading soil removed from canals to fields; * Laser-leveling fields; * Modifying pump practices; * Planting vegetation along canal banks; * Minimizing fertilizer application; * Rotating crops; * Growing rice during the summer flooding, allowing for higher water tables; * Using vegetable drainage water in sugarcane fields, and; * Retaining drainage on-farm, reducing phosphorus losses from 15-60%. Increased phosphorus uptake also can be attained through submerged aquatic vegetation, direct filters consisting of sand and carbon, membrane filters, dissolved air filtration that allows for phosphorus to attach to air bubbles and release into the atmosphere, chemicals that bind to phosphorus and then settle to the bottom, or various other mechanism. Implementing such methods south of the EAA and north of the Everglades National Park will reduce the total phosphorus discharge to the Everglades ecosystem. (5) LAND PURCHASE An area called the Rotenberger tract has been purchased. Wetland wildlife management will take place in this area. (3) While the main objective of restoration is to restore natural water levels, the wildlife must also be afforded accommodations in a suitable environment until such time as the Everglades can sustain its native fauna. EXOTIC GROWTH The EAA is home to exotic plants that pose a threat to the natural Everglades ecosystem. Maleluca (Maleluca spp.) and Brazilian Pepper (Schinus spp.) are two such species. Restoration should include the removal of these non-native plants to restore the land to its natural ecological state. Federal acquisition and restoration efforts understand agriculture's use of these plants, but would limit overgrowth. This particular problem would be addressed after the land changes hands from the agricultural sector to the ecological management authorities. (3) NEEDS OF SUGAR INDUSTRY The sugar industry needs to have lands on which to plant crops, water with which to maintain the crops, the ability to control water levels in crop areas, and the security that their lands will not be taken away, with an understanding of the increased legal responsibilities that have now been mandated by the Everglades Forever Act. The sugar industry in Florida provides thousands of jobs, and is crucial to the state economy. Without taking the proper steps to secure the interests of the sugar industry, the state could be damaging a valuable resource of another sort: economic growth. EFFORTS OF FARMERS TO PRESERVE EVERGLADES Because of the concerns raised in previous years over the effects on the land of using chemical additives to crops, farmers have re-evaluated their use of chemical additives. Most sugar crops in the EAA (over 80%) are now being grown without the use of pesticides, and the other 20% use drastically fewer amounts than before. In response to the high concentration of phosphorus in the EAA lands and water, fertilizers with less phosphorus than what the plants need are being used, so that the growing of cane can actually lower the phosphorus level in the water table. Quite possibly the best example of how biological engineering has assisted in the preservation of the Everglades, the varieties of cane grown in the EAA do not require any form of Fungicides, as they are all extremely resistant to most common fungal, bacterial, and viral attacks. The less the amount of chemicals that farmers use, the better for the environment in the Everglades. RESULTS PREDICTED OUTCOMES OF RESTORATION Focus is directed toward the EAA because restoration in this area would improve water management of regional water storage, floodwater detention, and the "fixing" of wetlands and wildlife habitat. (3) Using the EAA for water storage would reduce the area's dependency on Lake Okeechobee during dry periods. Damage to the WCAs to the south would be decreased because the storage in EAA would lower its water levels. (3) Recall that the excessive hydroperiods in the WCAs are detrimental to the ecosystem. The Army Corps of Engineers has performed most research with respect to the effects of restoration. The Everglades Screening Model (ESM) shows that the most efficient method of water storage would result from a design consisting of compartments. This series of water storage compartments would consist of secondary compartments that pump water to maintain a primary compartment. The secondary compartments would probably support nutrient-tolerant wetland vegetation. (3) The total size of the area (all compartments) varied in the model, from a minimum of 10,000 acres to a maximum of 150,000 acres. In a range from 10,000 acres to 150,000 acres, the ESM showed that 40,000 to 60,000 acres is the optimal range to meet the restoration objectives assuming that the compartments have a maximum depth of 6 feet. The deeper compartments, where applicable, make for more efficient storage. The ESM revealed that the large surface size compartments were less efficient due to increased evaporation. The creation of wetlands along the southern and eastern borders of the EAA will serve to remove nutrients from agricultural discharge water. (3) Referred to as Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs), these span 47,250 acres. The runoff would be collected in the STAs storage area within the EAA. This would reduce loss of water to tide and would prevent nutrient runoff from agriculture from reaching the rest of the Everglades. (3) The synthetic wetlands created in the STAs will reduce phosphorus outflow into the rest of the Everglades to 50 ppb (The natural, nutrient-poor water flow was 10ppb phosphorus). Plants materials and microbes are the actual nutrient-and- pollutant-removing mechanisms. With six individual STA, an average of 1.4 million acre-feet per year of stormwater runoff from the EAA can be received. Once the water is treated it will be used to improve quality and quantity of water flow in the Everglades to the south. (5) The purchase of land by the State of Florida serves several functions. After the land is publicly owned, it is engineering back into wetlands. Instead of the water being channeled to the Ocean, it will remain in wetlands for a longer period of time, allowing more to seep underground and replenish the aquifer. Thus, the purchase and "renovation" of EAA lands restores habitat for wildlife and refills the aquifer that supplies water to urban communities. (7) Federal purchase of land parcels in the EAA will also enable the restoration of the South Florida ecosystem through improved water management activities. The transfer of lands from private to public will have minimal short-term impacts. The private land used for farming in the EAA is subject to ad valorem taxes, and this source of revenue will be lost with public ownership. However, a payment-in-lieu-of-taxes plan could offset these short-term losses to the state. The state and local budgets would not be greatly affected by the loss in funds. Cultural and natural resources, especially wildlife, will also benefit in the short term with the change in ownership. (3) BENEFITS OF SUGAR CANE TO FLORIDA In terms of benefits, the sugar industry provides many. Sugar cultivation provides jobs for over 40,000 people, many of them migrant workers. Also, because of the amount of sugar produced, sugar has become a crucial portion of the state economy, right alongside tourism. Aside from being the largest sugar-producing state, Florida also produces most of the country's domestic vegetables during the winter season. Possibly the greatest benefit of the sugar cane industry in Florida is that because of the abundance of sugar produced, prices on sugar nation-wide are always relatively low. And as mentioned before, Florida produces much of the vegetables consumed in the winter months, also keeping the prices of other vegetables low. DESIRABILITY OF EAA FOR SUGAR CANE The EAA is in a location where the soil, nutrients, and water availability lend themselves perfectly for the cultivation of sugar cane. Sugar cane traditionally grows in areas with an abundance of water: Hawaii, Louisiana, Alabama, Puerto Rico, and Florida. Florida produces over half of the sugar cane in the United States, yielding 1,771,000 short tons (1996 estimate); per capita consumption of sugar by Americans is roughly 67 pounds per year. EFFECTS OF RESTORATION ON SUGAR CULTIVATION As with any other measure, there are both positive and negative aspects of the legislation. While it is understood that Everglades land preservation is crucial in order to prevent further deterioration of the ecosystem, it must be understood that with each acre given up from the EAA, the agriculture industry, and the economy of the state of Florida and the Nation in general, is losing much-needed growth opportunities. It is also understood that by forcing industry to find more efficient methods, all groups concerned benefit; however, without assistance from government the burdens of research spending could be detrimental to the industry, especially as far as the smaller farm owners are concerned. One thing that must be very carefully considered is the loss over water level control that farmers will now face. Without being able to keep the water levels in the EAA at favorable levels, farmers may face periods of drought such as just occurred on the island of Mauritius, where over 5,000 hectares of sugar cane were lost to a drought that lasted over a year, from October 1998 to January 2000. The Sugar Industry does not at the moment have any guarantees of water relief in the case of drought. URBAN DEVELOPMENT Urban development, although certainly not economically enhanced by restoration actions, does depend on the flood control and water supply that is provided by the C&SF project (1996). If restoration is not made a priority while urban growth continues its westward sprawl, there will be more strain on the natural ecological processes. (3) These ecological processes are important for maintaining the water supply that the South Florida population and wildlife depend on. The land for the STAs was acquired through the purchase of properties. Sixty-three thousand areas were obtained for these STAs. Some of the new public land will be used for public recreation. Such areas include the Holey Land Wildlife Management Area, Rotenberger Wildlife Management Area, Brown's Farm Wildlife Management Area and Lake Harbor Waterfowl Management Area. The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission is responsible for managing these areas. However, farming will continue on some of the acquired lands until 2005. (5) CONCLUSIONS While Agriculture is willing to make changes in the way it conducts business, environmentalists need to be more willing to compromise. If the effects of the current plan have a negative impact on sugar yields, then prices will soar. While ensuring that the Everglades Restoration is successful should be a high priority, the livelihood of farmers and croppers should also be taken into consideration. Without any safety nets in case the restoration process proves fatal to the EAA's farms, farmers are left with their fingers crossed. Acquired lands in the EAA are being used for water storage areas and other restoration activities. The Corps Restudy is what determines precisely how this marshland will be managed for restoration purposes. (3) Literature Cited 1) The Florida Everglades: A Model of Destruction. Florida Internet Center for Understanding Sustainability (FICUS), University of South Florida. 1999 http://www.ficus.usf.edu/docs/everglade_exhibit/CHAP6-2.HTM 2) The Florida Everglades: Smaller Everglades, Less Water, Fewer Habitats. Florida Internet Center for Understanding Sustainability (FICUS), University of South Florida. 1999 http://www.ficus.usf.edu/docs/everglade_exhibit/chap6-3.htm 3) Land Acquisition, Programmatic Environmental Assessment, EVERGLADES AGRICULTURAL AREA, Florida. United States Department of the Interior. July 1997 http://www.nps.gov/planning/ever/eaa/ 4) Maximizing Water Storage for Everglades/South Florida Ecosystem Restoration and Sustainability. Environmental Economics Council, National Audubon Society. March 1998 http://www.audubon.org/campaign/er/library/water-storage.html 5) Everglades Agricultural Area. Nova Southeastern University. 1997 http://www.nova.edu/ocean/eglades/sum00/eaa2.html 6) Testimony of Governor Jeb Bush. United States Senate Committee on the Environment and Public Works Washington, DC. May 11, 2000 http://www.senate.gov/~epw/bus_0511.htm 7) Sustainable Development in the ENP, Everglades Case Study. Florida International University. 1997 http://www.eng.fiu.edu/evrglads/engineer/sustain.htm American Society of Sugar Cane Technologies http://www.assct.org/ 8) US Sugar Corporation http://www.ussugar.com/ 9) University of Miami School of Law: Everglades Forever Act http://mako.law.miami.edu/everlitdb/docs/litigation/statutes/state/florida/E_forever.htm 10) PROSI Magazine Online http://www.prosi.net/mag2000/373feb/srvey373.htm