The People's Struggle
The People's Struggle
The Sociological Effects of World War Two on South Devonshire, England
Written in November 2003 for English History
University of West Florida
World War II was an event that forever changed Britain. Battles were won and lost, sacrifices were made, and many lives were either lost or shattered. Myriad pictures and reports tell of the damage that the German air raids inflicted upon London, Birmingham, and the rest of the larger cities of the country, but rare are the discussions of the impact that was felt in other regions of England. While city dwellers were coping with the effects of Nazi aggression, Devon�s population found itself in a struggle to adapt to the irreversible change that the war with Germany would bring to their soil.
The South Hams of Devon, located between Dartmouth and Kingsbridge, is an area unlike any other portion of the county. It is a collection of villages, bearing such names as Stokenham, Sherford, Scarswell, and Abbotsleigh, which possess a wide range of unique surroundings, as seen in figure A1. The southeastern part of the Hams is made up of shores of Start Bay, while the interior region is a rich and fertile farmland, grazed by cattle renowned the world over for their dairy production. Life in this area of England is far more remote and rural than most, owing to its isolated geographical nature, and the scarcity of mass transit through the region for centuries. The primary industry of the region is, of course, agriculture, although the seaside region occasionally enjoys a moderate flow of tourism from those seeking a quieter holiday destination than those of the larger seaside towns further northeast.
Daily life in South Hams was, therefore, slower paced than other areas within County Devon. While the men worked in the orchards and fields, the women were often charged with the care of the poultry and cattle, and more specifically with the products of these animals.
Poultry keeping was the way that a farmer�s wife would hope
to make extra money, and the weekly trip to the nearest market
with good fresh eggs, cream, and butter, and the occasional
table bird was of�much importance. (Bradbeer, 1973, p. 18)
Given the scarcity of automobiles in this area during the 1930�s, the predominant method of transportation was horse. Both horse-drawn carriages and stagecoaches remained in use well into the late twenties. Commerce was frequently engaged through the use of pack animals, the owners of which would show up in these villages regularly to ply their wares. They often found brisk trade among those who preferred to do business with them rather than make the trip to market for the goods they needed.
In contrast with the agrarian trade of South Hams, there is Exmouth, a seaside town to the northeast, where the primary form of commerce has, for centuries, been the hosting of holiday-takers from all over Great Britain. Unemployment was rare in Devon at that time, and most people were moderately prosperous. Most people had a two-week paid vacation, and many of them elected to spend it along the coast.
While the atmosphere in Exmouth was equally mellow, the town�s society was much more class conscious, in keeping with the more conservative feeling of most of Great Britain at the time. This was reflected in the transportation available to each class�s members, as described by Kenneth Evans, whose father owned the Imperial Hotel, which can be seen in figure A2:
You had to be rich to own a car back then. The upper middle
class might, but the lower middle class didn�t. Mostly, people
rode bicycles. There were buses for short distance trips, and
for long distances, most people took trains. (K. N. Evans,
personal communication, November 17th, 2003)
Though the skies over Devon would soon be far more populated than anyone could imagine, in the years before the war there were very few planes to be seen. �Occasionally, we would see a dirigible make its way overhead as it began its Transatlantic flight,� Mr. Evans (personal communication, November 17th, 2003) explained. �That was always a sight to behold.�
The common thread of peace and calm that Exmouth and South Hams shared was destroyed on September 3rd, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. In keeping with the agreement that Great Britain and France had made with the invaded country, England went to war. The people of England listened that day on their radios as Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced their country�s entry into the conflict.
It is a sad day for all of us. For none it is sadder than for
me. Everything that I worked for, everything that I had
hoped for, everything I believed in during my public life
has crashed into ruins this morning. (Bradbeer, 1973, p. 38)
The effects of the war upon Devon were immediate in some areas. Three days after Chamberlain�s declaration of war, German fighters arrived off England�s coast. They were repulsed by the RAF, but soon returned, beginning a series of air raids that would last for several years. The Nazis� initial intent seemed to be the demoralization of the populous through their hit-and-run tactics that often resulted in very few German casualties. Many of the villages in South Hams received their share of casualties from the German raids, as illustrated by figure A3.
Another early issue that England faced was the evacuation of the coastal areas due to the increasing frequency and intensity of the bombing raids. People were encouraged to move further inland if possible, and the effects of this exodus were seen over a great deal of England. By the end of the war, the government estimated that it had sponsored the evacuation of over one million people during the course of the conflict. This often led to culture shock for those in rural areas as they found themselves inundated with urban dwellers and their differences in lifestyle and behavior.
Exmouth, however, seemed relatively unaffected in the first part of the war. As Mr. Evans explained, the exodus from the cities didn�t have much effect on life in Exmouth:
We had some kids from London stay locally, in Exmouth. The
local Rotary Club, at one point, wanted to evacuate my brother
and I to Canada, but we didn�t want to go, and we never did. I
wouldn�t have minded going for a visit, but I wouldn�t have
wanted to abandon my hometown, and I don�t think there
was that much danger overall outside of the industrial areas.
(K. N. Evans, personal communication, November 17th, 2003)
In addition to the lack of disturbance from evacuees, air traffic over Exmouth remained relatively light. Few military movements could be seen, save for the transport of English troops through the area enroute to France and the Low Countries. This changed in 1940, when the Germans broke through the Maginot Line. The War Cabinet called for an evacuation of troops from Dunkirk in the face of increasing enemy forces, and all of England mobilized in a massive volunteer effort to rescue the troops from the French shore. Devon was no exception, and this would become one of the first major displays of unity in Great Britain during the war. One case of sacrifice involved two naval officers who, while on leave, took a private yacht to Dunkirk, rescued a unit, returned them to England, and returned the yacht just in time to report back for duty. The desire to volunteer was so great, that some people had to be told that their help was not needed.
One of our friends had a rather nice cabin cruiser, and we promptly
volunteered to go to Dunkirk, but the Coast Guard made a few
calculations, and said that there was no point to it, that we couldn�t
get there in time. (K. N. Evans, personal communication, November
17th, 2003)
After the evacuation of Dunkirk, the citizens of England found themselves in the bizarre predicament of trying to carry on with daily life despite the cloud of war that loomed over Britain. This effort was hindered in part by the economic upheaval caused by the enlistment of a large part of the male population. In many cases, this left wives and children in the position of becoming the breadwinners for the family. As a result, many women entered industry. In South Hams, a number of women found themselves working to maintain the farms on their own. The other primary concern for the citizens of Britain was the constant threat created by the daily�and nightly�air raids.
We�got to see several good dogfights: Hurricanes and
Spitfires versus the FW�s. At that time, Germany was
using a lot of dive-bombers, which was impressive, because
they would suddenly tip on one end and dive on a target.
They weren�t all that successful, but every day we would
listen to the evening news to see how the battle was going,
how many planes were lost on each side. The same thing
every morning, as far as the night raids were concerned.
(K. N. Evans, personal communication, November 17th, 2003)
In an effort to preserve life and property, steps were taken to minimize the effectiveness of the German bombing raids. Blackouts were imposed all over England. No light could be shown through any window. Cars had to have all of their lights covered with two layers of tissue paper. In addition, the headlights of all cars were fitted with special louvers that only emitted a thin beam of light. As a result of these requirements, few people drove at night unless an emergency required it. Of equal concern with regard to automobiles was the possibility of theft by paratroopers. All vehicle owners were required to lock and disable their cars at dusk, usually by means of removing the rotator arm. �Everyone thought that if they did come in, they would carry a pocketful of rotor arms that would fit the popular makes of cars at that time,� Mr. Evans (personal communication, November 17th, 2003) observed.
All of these requirements were strictly enforced by Air Raid Wardens, who would cite anyone who, in a blatant lack of self-preservation, would violate these wartime regulations. The Air Raid Wardens were one of several groups who existed during the war in order to help protect and defend the citizens of England. Others included the Civil Defense Organization, which responded to any bombs that were dropped, rescued any victims on the scene, and put out the fires that the bombings caused; the Fire Watchers, who had stations atop the highest buildings in every town and village and helped locate the incendiary bombs as they started the blazes in the towns and villages; and the LDV (later called the Home Guard), which assisted the military in the defense of the cities and towns during the air raids. Often people would volunteer for several of these organizations, contributing one or two nights a week to each of them.
Several opportunities existed for women to aid their country as well, as shown in figure A4. Such organizations included the ATS, the women�s section of the Army; the WRNS, or Women�s Royal Naval Service; the WAAF, or Women�s Air Force, the Women�s Land Army (not nearly as popular as the others); and the Women�s Voluntary Service. Through these organizations, many of England�s citizens formed a front against German aggression that still stands as a remarkable example of national unity.
Some of the projects undertaken by these groups took on massive proportions, and often, one town�s citizens were unaware of their role within the greater project.
�[R]ight after Dunkirk, there was a call for volunteers
to dig ditches along the beaches, and I can recall many hours
that I served digging these ditches, above the high tide line,
about a half-mile east of the hotel. We dug ditches along
the beach, and I think they were intended to make it difficult
for any sea borne invasion to get through them�the Marines
installed crisscrossed racks�toaster racks�that were dotted
around all over the shallow water, so that if you didn�t know
where they were in deep water, they�d put a hole in your boat.
If you hit one, you were sunk. (K. N. Evans, personal
communication, November 17th, 2003)
Meanwhile, in South Hams, there was a similar project being undertaken involving the subsequent creation of artificial harbors, called Mulberry A for the American forces and Mulberry B for the British forces, in order to achieve the function of both keeping the enemy out and bringing allied troops in. Thus, without realizing their role, the citizens to the northeast of South Hams played a small part in the process of fortifying the coast of England.
The Mulberry project was, in itself, part of one of the largest scale exercises to have occurred in Devon. It involved a mock-up of a landing by American troops and a subsequent observation of several South Hams villages in preparation for the D-Day invasion. This landing is illustrated in Figure A5. The major problem with this exercise was that it required the evacuation of the villages within a six-week time period. This resulted in both a superb effort on the part of the WVS and other volunteers, and many stressful moments for the population of the villages. In one case, an elderly gentleman who had lost touch with reality refused to leave his home, even when all of his possessions were packed by volunteers and he sat upon a packing case at his gate. In another, a woman became so upset by the thought of leaving her home that she had a heart attack and died on her doorstep. The evacuation of citizens due to the requirements of the military for D-Day preparations was not unheard of in Exmouth, either. In the case of Mr. Evans, his family was removed from their hotel when it was requisitioned by the Royal Navy as a command headquarters for the invasion training.
A common result of these evacuations and military requisitions was the relationships that built between American soldiers and the British civilians with whom they often billeted. Often, those employed in the cookhouses would share their food with their British housemates, who would help them in turn. In the case of one South Hams family, the soldiers were taught how to wash and iron their clothes with the skill of an experienced launderer. In Exmouth, the American soldiers with whom Mr. Evans and his family shared their row house were more than happy to cook for them�in exchange for a healthy supply of the liquor that had been liberated from the hotel bars prior to its requisition.
As the war dragged on, the people of Britain gradually developed an ennui regarding the dangers of the war. On one occasion, an engineer climbed an oil tank during an air raid in order to get a better look at the action that was occurring, only to have a pair of German Fokkers fly over his head at zero altitude. In Exmouth, Mr. Evans found himself evacuating to the shelters less and less during bombing raids. �Nobody was getting enough sleep. So we�d go to bed, and ignore the air raid warnings.� (K. N. Evans, personal communication, November 17th, 2003)
This led to an interesting method of determining the potential danger of a bombing raid that echoes the concept of counting seconds between thunderbolts and lightning. �If we heard any bombs dropping, we would count them, because they would always be in sets of six. If number two was getting louder, then you�d listen. If not, you were all right. So, sometimes it was a case of one...two...THREE...FOUR...under the bed!� (K. N. Evans, personal communication, November 17th, 2003)
Another occasion found Mr. Evans with his family at their seaside cabin, where an incendiary bomb landed about fifty feet from their front door.
We went outside, and there was one that fell about 50 feet from our cabin,
so we put some rocks around it, and got the skillet,
and had a little cookout. Of course, the Civil Defense came around, and wanted to put it out,
and we said, �No, have some coffee, have a hot dog.� So, they did. (K. N. Evans, personal communication, November 17th, 2003)
It was not only the British who displayed such casual disregard for danger. One volunteer in South Hams reported that she �came round a corner one day and was confronted by signs saying �Danger��quantities of huge ammunition boxes�and a little coloured soldier sitting, happily smiling, right on top�smoking!� (Bradbeer, 1973, p. 87)
After the D-Day invasion and the Allied air raids on Berlin, the mood in Britain gradually began to change. No longer faced with the daily threat of fires and bombings, the citizens began to relax. In South Hams, the people were finally allowed to return to their homes. In many cases, this was not always a pleasant homecoming. Looters, believing that American troops would be blamed for their handiwork, took frequent opportunities to liberate many homeowners from anything of value that they possessed. In some cases, even brass doorknobs and bathroom fixtures were stolen. Others found souvenirs of the military exercises on their property, as in the case of one elderly lady who found an unexploded shell in her garden, but was fortunate enough to find someone to defuse it for her.
In Exmouth, rationing was greater after the war than it had been during the conflicts. In particular, soap, citrus fruits, and nylon stockings were difficult to come by. Those stockings that were available were usually brought over by American GI�s during the war. Not so rationed were meats, fish, and eggs. Sugar, which was made from local beets rather than imported cane, was relatively simple to obtain. The rationing was fair, and everyone got some of these items every week. Gradually, though, supply lines reopened, and life returned to normal in many ways.
Economically, however, some people did not achieve the same state of normalcy quite so easily. In South Hams, many fields had been devastated by the effects of the training exercises and the negligence that they had suffered in the absence of their owners. For many farmers, long, hard hours were required to return the fields to the point at which they would again yield a profitable harvest. As one farmer explained, �The land has changed its face, you see�the best and richest ground has suffered most.� (Bradbeer, 1973, p. 111) In Exmouth, the Imperial Hotel was relinquished by the Royal Navy following the end of the war, but by that time, Mr. Evans� family was scattered halfway around the world.
Dad was still in the navy; my brother was still overseas, Mom
left Warrington and stayed with family in London. I was no
longer in Exmouth at that time. When the hotel was handed
back, it was in a hell of a mess, and no one was in a position
to restore it to working order. So, at that time, they sold it.
We never went back. (K. N. Evans, personal communication,
November 17th, 2003)
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