Barbara Benjamin
A
Comparison between Malory and Gottfried on Love
Themes in the Tristan Story
The ancient
legend of Tristram and Isolde
is a tragic love story. This well-known,
old Celtic legend has enchanted readers for centuries, probably because of the
magical theme of the love potion. The love potion gives this story a unique
quality that lends itself easily to the imagination. This, no doubt, is part of the fascination for
so many people over many hundreds of years, and that the story was translated into many languages.
When I read a full account of the Tristram
story, I was quite surprised to find that it was nothing like Malory's version. I probed into the matter a little further and found that
neither Gottfried's nor Malory's
versions were very true to the original legend.
Since the Tristan saga is a love story, this paper will compare how both
Malory and Gottfried handle the theme of love, how
they deviate from the basic story, why the authors decided to change their
stories.
The original
Tristan saga consisted of three parts:
1) The wooing of the princess, 2) the slaying of the giant, Morolt, and 3) the story of Isolde
of the While Hands. The first part
contains two subordinate motifs. The
first is that the hero must make a precarious journey to win a bride. The second is of the young man's secret love
for the bride of his uncle, who is also his king.
In the
second part, the hero is victorious in killing the giant, but is seriously wounded.
He's set adrift in a rudderless boat and
journeys to fairyland where he hopes to be cured. Then finally, third
the section is the story of a girl with the same name as the hero's lost love
and the tale of the black and white sails (Zeydel
6). Some versions tell of a happy ending, while others tell of the couple's tragic
death. Beyond these very basic elements,
many variations of the legend have evolved, with numerous new features added to
the story.
Both Malory and Gottfried follow the most basic structure, but
that's were the similarity ends. Each
author begins his story with a tale about Tristan's parents. Gottfried carefully presents the man and
woman who become Tristan's father and mother, Rivalin
and Blancheflou.
A rather detailed description is given of Rivalin's
personality, his various traits--even his bad points--and
also his image by his peers and countrymen. For example, the narrator says, "He was
a delight to all, a paragon of chivalry, the glory of his kinsmen, the firm hope of his land. . . . [but]
he over-indulged himself in pleasures dear to his heart and did entirely as he
pleased" (Gottfried '88 7). Rivalin's exploits are also described in fair detail. His exploits show him to be a noble knight,
and his personality reveals a passionate and heartfelt nature, but also one that is impetuous and feckless, which is
revealed in an ominous tone.
When the
narrator introduces Blancheflou, the descriptions of
her are much more general. She is described more by the effect she has on men, than by any
kind of personality trait. The narrator
comments, "This heavenly vision made many a man.
. . gay and mettlesome, and exalted many a noble heart" (Gottfried '88
12). By giving a less detailed
description of her personality, he shows only a sensuous woman as she appears
to men. Without personality traits, she
is less likely to be "flawed."
Actually, she's more of an apparition than a
person. This woman, then, becomes the
mirror twin of the fair Isolde.
When Rivalin and Blancheflou finally
come together as lovers, the focus is on their feelings, feelings of love,
pain, joy, and sorrow. The language to
describe their feelings is often sensuous, although always within the realm of
good taste. For example:
When he considered the
marvel that had befallen him in his Blancheflou and
went through it all in detail from beginning to end, her hair, her brow, her
temples, her cheeks, her mouth, her chin, the joyous Easter Day that lurked
smiling in her eyes, Love, the one and true incendiary, came and kindled her
flames of desire, the flames that set his heart on fire and revealed to him in
a flash what keen sadness the lovers' pining are! (Gottfried '88 53)
By focusing
on the couple's feelings, the narrator creates an image of longing, desire, and
passion. The all-consuming love that
grows between this couple is the same love that will
resonate through the lives of the two main characters, Tristan and Isolde. Tristan will
inherit his father's impetuous, passionate nature, as well as the intensity of
the love and the tragic end of his parents.
The love affair between Rivalin and Blancheflou is a mini-version of the Tristan/Isolde story, foreshadowing their fate.
In contrast
to Gottfried's eloquence and attention to detail, Malory pays little attention to detail and very little time
introducing the parents. Most of what he
says about them is cold and matter-of-fact.
To describe the love that exists between this man and woman, Malory says the following:
So when this Meliodas
had been with his wife, within a while she waxes great with child, and she was
a full meek lady, and well she loved her lord, and he her again, so there was
great joy betwixt them. (Malory/Morte 303)
This is
it! This one sentence describes the
entire relationship of the two lovers. There
is little resemblance to Gottfried. The
difference appears even more pronounced because of the wide diversity in the
style of the two writers. Malory uses simple, plain language, whereas Gottfried's language is eloquent and rich. Gottfried's style
often reads like a modern-day novel. In
fact, to place Gottfried's Tristan in true
perspective, it is considered one of the four great
narrative poems from Virgil to the present day. In short, it is
considered a masterpiece. So, there's really no comparison in style.
Not
considering the style then, why is there such a vast difference between
them? Why does Gottfried take so much
time and effort to develop the scene and the situation? And, why does Malory, on the other hand, spend so little time? The answer is found
when the authors' motives are considered, why each is writing their story, and
what message they wish to tell.
Based on the
first example, one would guess that Gottfried is most concerned with the
subject of love. This, in fact, is the
case. In the Prologue, Gottfried
explains clearly why he is writing his story and to whom, and
also to whom he is not. He say's
he is not writing for the "many who. . .are
unable to endure sorrow and wish only to revel in bliss. . . .their way and mine diverge sharply" (Gottfried '88
42). So, he's
not writing for people who just want pleasure and no pain. He's writing for the
world of lovers who understand that "together in one heart bears its
bitter-sweet, its dear sorrow, its heart's joy, its love's pain, its dear life,
its sorrowful death, its dear death, its sorrowful life. . . . This sorrow is
so full of joy. . .no noble heart will forgo it!"
(Gottfried '88 42).
Now we have
some idea of Gottfried's motives. He says clearly that he isn't just telling a
story, but that he wishes to share with only those "noble few" the
story of "noble lovers who gave proof of perfect love" (Gottfried '88
43). It's
obvious, then, that Gottfried intends to embellish the Tristan story. He will cast a new mold of love by a
retelling of Tristan, for he says that, "there have been many who
have told the tale of Tristan; yet there have not been many who have read his
tale aright" (Gottfried '88 43). But, what method does he use to weave his special golden
thread through this old story?
From the
very beginning of the tale, Gottfried focuses on developing the theme of love
and the love affairs, first between Rivalin and Blancheflou, then later, between Tristan and Isolde. The omnipotent narrator intervenes and comments
frequently throughout the story always drawing the reader's attention to lover,
desire, and passion.
Gottfried
expands his theme by elaborating and dramatizing the tortures of love, as well
as the joys. Tristan and Isolde must endure much pain because of their love, as did
Tristan's parents. For example, when
King Mark eventually suspects their affair, he is never quite certain of it
because he can't catch them at it. However, he has them watched continuously and
forbids them at one point to be near each other. Tristan and Isolde
aren't able to
even look upon the other, much less converse.
As a result, each grows more and more miserable and sickly as time goes
on. The sympathetic narrator comments at
length on the cruelty of Mark's actions, which causes the lovers to suffer such
tremendous anguish. He says:
". . . the watch that was set on
Tristan and Isolde was torment to those lovers, the
royal command that they were to avoid each other so afflicted them that never
before did they give such thought to their chances of a meeting, until, after
all their pangs, they at last accomplished it.
But they both reaped suffering from it, and mortal sorrow,
too." (Gottfried '60 279)
He
emphasizes the torment and despair that both experience. So, the message
stresses the corresponding and equal relationship between love and
torment. The narrator shares in the pity
of their plight and is deeply moved. He shows complete compassion towards the
lovers and distaste for Mark's actions.
The last sentence foreshadows their death, which, of course, adds more
pathos.
Note in the
following passage how he stresses the two sides of the pair, "the woman
for the man, the man for the woman." He states the union one way then reverses the
order and restates it. This reinforces
the notion that neither person is more or less than the other, but that they
are equal as one.
Grief and despondency were very active between them. They suffered two kinds of sorrow. . . . From
hour to hour their strength and spirits began to flag,
and they lost colour.
The man grew pale for the woman, the woman for the man;
Tristan for Isolde, Isolde
for Tristan. This gave them both great torment. . . .their suffering one
and undivided; for there was but one heart and soul between them. (Gottfried '60 230)
The
narrator, using a melodramatic but sincere tone, draws the reader deeper and
deeper into pity for this poor couple's tragic plight. It is interesting to note, too, that when the
narrator successfully focuses attention on the couple's misery, doing so avoids
the issue of adultery. Doubt is never cast on the propriety of the couple's love
affair. The fact that Isolde is a married woman has no relevance to
Gottfried. What matters to him is the
extraordinary love that's shared between the two
lovers.
Gottfried's interest is to express the beauty of devoted love which is full of feeling. He says he disdains those who hide their
feelings and exclaims, "The more they veil themselves the more they
despoil themselves and adulterate joy with sorrow" (Gottfried '88
204). Apparently, the rights
of lovers supersedes the rights of the marriage contract. The greater sin is to adulterate joy.
Part of Gottfried's technique is to have the narrator
"lecture" periodically on the theme of love, continuing to draw
through his golden thread. In the
following passage, he rails about how the word "love" is maltreated. He
lacks patience with those who give love lip service (pardon the pun). He says:
All that we have is the bare word, only
the name remains to us; and this we have so hackneyed, so abused, and so
debased, that the poor, tired thing is ashamed of her own name and is disgusted
at the word. She heartily loathes and
despises herself. (Gottfried '88 204)
Through the
love story of Tristan and Isolde, "Gottfried
will resurrect the word in all its complexity.
He sees beauty of language in the intimate connection between external
form and the inner meaning to be sought" (Dayan
26). And the
narrator seems to be the grand professor on the subject of love, gently guiding
the reader towards the true way of perfect love.
Gottfried's perfect love has three components. The first, seen in the example above, is the
torment of separation. True lovers
cannot bare to be separated and will become ill because
of the tremendous longing and stress of being apart. The second component is that of
"oneness, one heart, one soul". "Oneness" means the lovers'
pleasure, their pain, their life, and their death are as if
woven into one unit. The third
component is that the lovers' external love and internal love is united. "For Gottfried, love in its most perfect
form belongs to the heart and external sense as well as to the mind and inner
sense. Heart and soul, then, merge in a
union which implies a state of spiritual exaltation unequaled in the courtly
romance genre" (Dayan 24). It is this quality which
makes the love between Tristan and Isolde
transcendent. An example of "oneness," the second component, can be seen in the following excerpt when Tristan flees the
country for a while to let Mark's blood pressure settle. He sails to
Because they
are one soul, Tristan can feel how much Isolde is
suffering. This knowledge of his lover
is the "oneness" Gottfried speaks of. Tristan and Isolde
have an obsessive desire to fuse their two separate identities into one to
achieve oneness. To do this, they must
have shared experiences, which provides each with knowledge of the other's
identity and their own, and then can lead to oneness, or the identity of the
couple as a unit. If they are separated, oneness is maintained by trying to experience
what the other is feeling. The attempt
to become one is called "doubling" by
Matilda Bruckner.
Bruckner says:
"Every time one of the lovers
perceives a gap between self and other---be it across time, space, or sexual
identity---he or she tries to try out the other's experience of joy or
suffering. [Doubling eliminates the
difference of] now and then, here and there, him and her, and thus acts as a
source of joy and comfort for Tristan and Isolde"
(Bruckner 51).
When Isolde receives the dog, she snips off the little bell so
she cannot be comforted by it. She knows "that her friend Tristan bore
a load of troubles for her sake [and cannot rejoice when she knows he has]
surrendered his life and joy to sorrow for [her] sake, is sad because of
[her]" (Gottfried '88 256). She
wishes to surrender whatever joy she has so that she experiences the same
sadness of love that she knows Tristan feels.
In this way, both would be one in their sorrow in separation.
The third
aspect of Gottfried's love will be
covered later. First, I'd like to return to Malory. Gottfried's
commitment to write his version of Tristan is because of the importance
he places on the theme of love. How
does this compare, then, to Malory's version? How does Malory
treat the theme of love between this tragic couple?
Whereas
Gottfried spends nearly half of his story developing the background and
Tristan's youth and early adulthood, by comparison, Malory
spends only 3-4 pages. Malory doesn't launch into his
story of Tristram until Tristram fights Sir Marhaus. He spends almost as much time on this one
event as he does on Tristram's entire
background. Malory
inserts the following little snippet that doesn't
exist in either of the other Tristan stories I'm aware of. So, he may have
invented it.
He mentions
that just before Tristram sets out for
As for the
love that began emerging between Tristram and Isoud, Malory states simply,
"Tramtrist cast great love to La Beale Isoud, for she was at that time the fairest maid and lady
of the world." And
of La Beale Isoud, he says, "and she began to
have a great fantasy unto him" (Malory/Morte
317). After these two very brief
comments on a supposedly blooming love affair, he undercuts it further by going
on at length how Tristram jousted, particularly
against Sir Palomides, supposedly his rival lover for
Isoud. The
suggestion is that he had more joy jousting with Palomides
to secure more honor for himself than he did for any
reasons of a rival lover. "Malory alters Tristram
first from falling in love which rose out of desire, to ousting Palomides from Isoud's
favors" (Cowan/Morte xix).
Then, after Tristram returns to
Later, Sir
Lancelot's brother takes Sir Segwarides' wife as an
adventure. Instead of going immediately
to rescue the lady, Tristram fights with two proven
knights from King Arthur's Round Table so he might increase his worship,
"for it is many day sithen I did any deeds of
arms," he says (Malory/Morte 331). Tristram finally
does rescue the lady. She is given the choice of which knight she will go to, Tristram or Sir Bleobares. She turns away from Tristram
saying that he is untrue because he did not come to rescue her right away.
Here, Tristram looks a bit silly since the lady, who supposedly
loved him over all other knights, turns him down. He even bragged before that she was sure to
choose him. So,
the fact Malory emphasizes early an event of knightly
prowess indicates that he has more interest in Tristram
as a knight. Consequently, Malory seems intent on destroying Tristram's
reputation as a great lover. If this is
the case, what is the purpose for doing it?
Because, it isn't Malory's
interest to recreate a love story. His
motives are at right angles to Gottfried's.
Malory wrote the account of King Arthur's reign for basically three reasons.
One, because he wanted to show what he believed to be
the causes of the decline and eventual destruction of Arthur's kingdom. Two, he wished to preserve a record of
"the jentyl and vertuous
dedes that somme
knyghtes used in tho dayes, by whiche they came to honour" (Malory Works
vi). Malory
had a deep affection for the virtues of knighthood. "He thought of [chivalry] primarily as
an example of loyalty to a great cause and of Arthurian romance as a record of
the heroic past of
Malory's idea of chivalry is not the commonly held view of
courtly behavior. In fact, Malory disdained the French view of chivalric honor: "A knight was ready to suffer
humiliation, and any suffering that he might be called upon to bear for his
lady's sake was welcome. But this kind
of devotion to a sublime duty, and of an infinite sense of sacrifice was not Malory's idea of Chivalry" (Vinaver/Malory
Works 768). He thought that the courtly
code of self-denying devotion of the knight-lover to his lady as part of the
contributing factor to the demise of Arthur's kingdom. "Of all the loyalties, that of knight to
lord (the 'masculine bond of fidelity') overshadows that of knight to
lady" (Bradbrook 153). The winning of "worship" is of
primary importance to Malory's knights, and the
winning of love is secondary, if at all.
The concept
of chivalry in Malory's sources, obviously, differs
from his own. In his Le Morte d'Arthur, he depicts a
martial chivalry which emphasizes knightly prowess and
"worship," as well as strong loyalties to sovereign, kin, and
friend. As P. E. Tucker says in his
"Chivalry in the MORTE":
He depicts a courtly chivalry, though he
does not see love as its proper goal. Malory seems to view the courtly love in his sources as
artificial and immoral, and he depicts a love which is
natural, spontaneous, and faithful--a form of loyalty. . . . Malory's concept of chivalry is practical, governed by
Christian values, and unified by the theme of loyalty." (Tucker 164)
Knowing Malory isn't interested in sentiment
in his account of King Arthur, why did he use the Tristram
story, which was known specifically as a love story? Malory was
interested in the "conflict of loyalties inherent in the traditional
doctrine and practice of chivalry that arose from the incompatibility of
courtly love and feudal allegiance" (Vinaver
202). He saw the failure of the Round
Table, not as a gradual decay, but as the result of weakness'
built into the structure of the society.
Thus, he wanted to depict this society, King Arthur's Round Table, that
when the social loyalties disintegrate, the characters revert to the more
primitive loyalties of kinship, which trigger the destruction of the kingdom.
Malory chose to use Tristram
in a several different ways to aid his purposes. First, King Mark is used
as a foil to King Arthur. There is a
gradual, sinister evolution of Mark's character, eventually becoming the
perfect villain, thus parading as a polar opposite to Arthur. Malory parallels Tristram with Lancelot, although Tristram
is subordinated to Lancelot. In the Tristram
section, it is really Lancelot who is the focus. He is continually glorified
by numerous minor characters.
Perhaps Malory's intent is to
further prepare Lancelot's image for the Grail Quest.
Also, when compared, Tristram and
Lancelot initially appear to be very similar.
But by continually emphasizing their
similarities, their essential differences begin to emerge. Lancelot is the ideal, loyal, heroic
knight. He's
King Arthur's right hand guy and his pride and joy. Tristram, on the
other hand, is an aimlessly wandering knight-errant. His relationship to his king is totally
opposite that of Lancelot and Arthur. So, Tristram the knight serves to
highlight Lancelot, and the Tristram story
allows further development of the fatal factions amongst Arthur's knights. Thomas Rumble say,
"The Tristram section provides time for
the development of the 'discrepancy' between the ideals of the Round Table and
the human limitations that will destroy it" (Rumble 169).
Malory also uses Tristram as a
lead-in for the Grail story. Tristram's running feud with Palomides
the Saracen, Tristram's rival lover of Isoud, is a theme that runs throughout the Tristram section.
The animosity between them provides continuity. That Palomides is a
Saracen allows for the baptism of a pagan by Tristram
at the end, thus, providing a natural transition into the quest.
Regardless
whether Malory uses Tristram
as a knight, he still has to deal with the subject of love and the love
potion. One of the most well known
features of the Tristan story involves this scene. Knowing Malory has
little interest in the theme of love, it is curious to compare how he and
Gottfried handle this scene.
Gottfried,
as expected, takes this particular scene very seriously. After Tristan and Isolde
drink the potion, in an instant they feel the stirrings of love. After the drink, the narrator expounds
endlessly about the agony the two young people are experiencing because of
their sense of honor. They are honor-bound
because Isolde is to wed the king, Tristan's
uncle. So, each of them is in torment to
realize they have fallen in love with the other. This theme of torment, as we've
already seen, is an essential ingredient to Gottfried's
idea of love. The narrator plays heavily
on the paradox that love causes torment.
He notes the pitiful pair as their love becomes progressively stronger,
and of course, more tortuous. For
example, he says:
The loyal man was
afflicted by a double pain: when he looked at her face and sweet Love began to wound his
heart and soul with her, he bethought himself of Honour.
. . . [but] Honour and
Loyalty harassed him powerfully, but Love harassed him more. Love tormented him to extreme. . . .etc. (Gottfried '88
196)
The drinking
of the potion is an important scene for Gottfried because it gives birth to the
love he wishes to recreate for the reader.
The narrator, then, continues to intensify the theme of torment. Here, too, the first notion of oneness
emerges when their two hearts become "a single heart." Tristan and Isolde
cannot escape this destiny and it will be the driving force in their
lives. This is a powerful scene because
it begins with two people who are merely acquainted with each other and ends
with two people who are fighting forceful internal feelings of love, guilt, and
torment.
Malory, on the other hand, devotes a scant three short
paragraphs to describe the entire incident.
It barely takes up half a page.
He says:
Then they laughed and made good cheer, and
either drank to other freely, and they thought never drink that ever they drank
to other was so sweet nor so good. But by that their
drink was in their bodies, they loved either other so well that never their
love departed for weal neither for woe.
And thus it happened that love first betwixt Sir Tristram
and La Beale Isoud, the which
love never departed the days of their life." (Malory/Morte
346)
This is the
end of Malory's reference to the love potion and its
effects. Tristram
goes from there immediately to the adventure of the
After the
adventure, Tristram and Isoud
proceed on their way to
Nothing, not
even love potion, can interfere with the customs of knight-errantry. Malory's Tristram values above all, not the presence of his beloved,
but the high privilege of fighting in her name.
"Fidelity to their lady loves is but another illustration of the
dedication to the 'High Order' [of knighthood]" (Malory
Works 750).
The subject
of knighthood comes up in Gottfried's story only two
or three times. It is something
mentioned in passing without much significance.
Fighting does occur on four occasions and Gottfried does spend some time
describing details. But,
whereas Malory would make a full description for the
glorification of knighthood, Gottfried does so simply to add interest and to
move the story along. He doesn't wish to compete with "knightly poets in
descriptions of arms and battles" (Hatto'60 11). This is left to Malory. So, their two
goals run counter to each other. Gottfried's goal is to reveal the ultimate moment of
perfect love: The couple's union in
death.
Tristan and Isolde's death is the culmination of everything their love
is, was, and will be. Love's devotion
will find that final element of Gottfried's perfect
love. At the parting scene, just before
Tristan must flee forever because they are discovered lying together by Mark, Isolde
says to Tristan:
When I am
orphaned of you, then I, your life, will have perished. I will guard myself,
your life, with jealous care, not for my sake but yours, knowing that our two
lives are one. . . . Let me see my life again, in you,
as soon as ever possible; and may you see yours in me! The life we share is in your keeping.
(Gottfried '88 282)
Their love,
at this point, transcends physical boundaries since one lives
within the other. The life of one
becomes the life of the other to live in the present, "assert[ing] its eternal renewal" (Lewes 68), even though
physically they are separated. By Isolde's words, their love is extended into the future, and also lives continually in the past through memory. Lewes says that:
Isolde fervently asserts that each body serves
the other's will, not its own. When Isolde declares triumphantly, 'that I am yours, that you
are mine, steadfast till death, but one Tristan and Isolde!'
a complete intermingling of self and lover has taken place." (Lewes 69)
The parting
ends in serenity and the lovers are upheld by an absolute
trust, and an almost mystical bond.
This is Gottfried's love in its most perfect form, that which belongs to the heart and external sense as
well as to the mind and inner sense. It
is a union of heart and soul, a state of spiritual exaltation. This remarkable conception of the lover's
bond was entirely new for Gottfried's time.
Tristan dies
before ever seeing Isolde again. She comes too late
to where he lay dying. When she sees his
body, she places her body next to his, "takes him in her arms, lying at
full length, she kisses his face and lips and clasps him tightly to her. Then straining body to body, mouth to mouth,
she at once renders up her spirit and of sorrow for her lover dies thus at his
side" (Thomas 353). Isolde has the last vision of their love, one of complete fidelity
and unity, and thus, the lover's ultimate desire to fuse into one.
Gottfried's story ends in an element of mysticism and
spirituality. It brings together in a
final unity Gottfried's vision of perfect love. In Gottfried's
hands, this legend masterfully attains its supreme place in literature.
As might be
expected, Malory's ending for the Tristram
story isn't even remotely similar to Gottfried's, or even to the basic saga. Malory, in fact, doesn't even complete the story. There are several possibilities why he didn't. One of the
simplest reasons is that Malory simply became
overwhelmed with the size of the Tristram book and lost patience to continue with it. It was necessary, after all, for him to
rewrite much of the Tristram story. This seems to be a reasonable
conjecture. However,
there may be other factors that affected his decision, as well.
It's possible that since Tristram's
character in Malory's book isn't suitable for the
quest, he naturally wouldn't use him in the grail story. Then, after the quest concludes, Malory's focus and primary interest is the final breach of
internal allegiances and the kingdom's destruction. Tristram could have been worked into this story, but there really is
no particular need for him. In addition,
an account of Tristram and Isolde's
death would take away from the more important objective of the ending
story. Therefore, from the standpoint of
the plot, it doesn't make sense to include Tristram or Isoud. Any one of these reasons is logical, and Malory's decision to discontinue Tristram
may have included a little of each of them.
Unfinished
by design or not, the important thing to understand is that Malory
used the saga of Tristram not to repeat an old
legend. And
neither did Gottfried. Each author took
the seeds of an old story and grew them in new soil. Each story was successfully
grown in its own garden. The
color and shape of the blossoms put forth by each depended on many
factors. Each author had different tools
and different talents. Each had
different motives and outlooks. And since the sun slants differently into each garden, so
should the blossoms not be compared one to the other. The unique creation of each author stands on
its own. I
looked into each garden, smelled the blossoms, and took home a lovely
bouquet.
WORKS CITED
von Strassburg,
Gottfried. Tristan
and Isolde. Trans. A. T. Hatto,
Rev. Francis G. Gentry.
von Strassburg,
Gottfried and Thomas. Tristan. Trans. A. T. Hatto.
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