FOREWARD

Plant protection is the insurance of plant production. Because of this, plant protection plays an important role in Türkiye's agriculture. The past of the plant protection research, application, training and education activities go further back moreover, it has got a strong and widespread organization, in Türkiye. These activities were not taken into consideration as a whole and gathered together to prepare such as extensive report, up to now.

This report, where the plant protection activities of Türkiye have been taken in hand in all the ways and with the request of FAO Near East Office, have been prepared by a commission of 7 technical staff, whose names and occupations are given on the first page. It is obvious that, there are some lacks in the report, because it has been prepared in a very short time and it could not be possible to ask the opinions and the advices of the other plant protection institutions, about the report.

However, we are glad to be given the duty of preparing this report, which will have great supplements in introducing the plant protection research, extension, education and training activities both thorough Türkiye and all over the World.

TABLE OF CONTENS Page

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. General Map of Türkiye

Figure 2. Agricultural Regions

Figure 3. Agricultural Land and Forest Area

Figure 4. Field Production

Figure 5. Fruit Production

Figure 6. Vegetable Production

Figure 7. Organizational Structure of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs

Figure 8. Organizational Structure of the General Directorate of Agricultural

Figure 9. Responsibility Areas of the Plant Protection Research Institutes

Figure 10. Organizational Structure of the General Directorate of Protection and

Figure 11. Provinces Where IPM has been Applied in 1995 - 1996

Figure 12. National IPM Organization in Türkiye

Figure 13. General IPM Network in Türkiye

Figure 14. National Network for IPM in Apple

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Exports by Main Sectors, 1988 - 1993

Table 2. Exports of Main Agricultural Commodities, 1988 - 1993

Table 3. Imports by Main Sectors, 1988 - 1993

Table 4. Imports of Main Agricultural Commodities, 1988 - 1993

Table 5. Production and Yield of Some Field Crops

Table 6. Fruits, Number of Trees and Production, 1993

Table 7. Area Used for Tea Plantation and Production of Green Leaves, 1988-

Table 8. Production of Some Vegetables

Table 9. Diseases, Pests and Weeds on Some Major Crops

Table 10. Area Sown, Harvested, Production and Yield of Field Crops, 1992

Table 11. Research Institutes Related With Plant Protection, in Türkiye

Table 12. Names and Addresses of the Pesticide Manufacturers, Importers and

Table 13. Plant Protection Research Projects Being Carried on During the

Table 14. Natural Enemies Being Reared in Türkiye and Pests on Which the

Table 15. Production, Importation and Consumption of Pesticides in Türkiye

Table 16. Registered Plant Protection Equipments and Machinery in Türkiye

Table 17. Imported and Exported Plant Materials in 1993 - 1995

Table 18. National IPM Programmes

AGRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT

AERI : Agricultural Economics Research Institute

ANTBİRLİK : Antalya Cotton Growers Union

APK : Research Planning and Co-ordination Council

ARO's : Area(s) of Research Opportunity

BARI : Blacksea Agricultural Research Institute

CCMS : Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society

CGRI : Citrus and Greenhouse Research Institute

CHOFREC : Coordinating Head Office of Foreign Relations and European

CIHEAM : International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies

CIMMYT : International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

CIP : International Center for Potato Center

ÇUKOBİRLİK : Çukurova Cotton Growers Union

ECO : Economic Coordination Organization

EPA : Environment Protection Agency

EPPO : European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization

EU : European Union

FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FİSKOBİRLİK : Hazelnut and Pistachio Growers Union

GAP : Southeastern Anatolia Project

GDAR : General Directorate of Agricultural Researches

GDOS : General Directorate of Organization and Support

GDP : Gross Domestic Product

GDPC : General Directorate of Protection and Control

GDPD : General Directorate of Production and Development

GIFAP : Society of the World Pesticide Producers

GÜLBİRLİK : Isparta Rose Growers Union

GNP : Gross National Product

GTZ : Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit

IAEA : International Atomic Energy Agency

ICARDA : International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

IDB : Islamic Development Bank

IFAD : International Fund for Agricultural Development of the United Nations

IGR : Insect Growth Regulator

IOBC : International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants

IPM : Integrated Pest Management

MARA : Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs

MARMARABİRLİK : Marmara Oil Growers Union

NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OECD : Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PANKOBİRLİK : Sugar Beet Growers Union

PGR : Plant Growth Regulator

PPRI : Plant Protection Research Institute

RNEA : Regional Office for the Near East

RMP : Research Master Plan

ROF : Research Opportunity Fields

SIS : State Institute of Statistics

SIT : Sterile Insect Techniques

TARP : Türkiye Agricultural Research Project

TCP : Technical Cooperation Project

TEAWRP : Türkiye Eastern Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation Project

TEKEL : Turkish Central Directorate of Tobacco, Tobacco Products, Salt and

TİSİT : The Association of the Pesticide Importers and Representars

TRAKYABİRLİK : Trace Sunflower Growers Union

TRT : Türkiye Radio Television

TŞFAO : Türkiye Sugar Factories General Directorate

TTKKMB : Turkish Agricultural Credit Cooperatives Union

TUR : Türkiye

TÜBİTAK : Scientific and Technical Research Organization of Türkiye

TYUAP : Agricultural Extension, Application and Research Project

TZOB : Turkish Agricultural Chambers Union

UNDP : United Nations Development Programme

US : United States

USDA : USA Ministry of Agriculture

UTF : Unilateral Trust Funds

YAY-ÇEP : Widespread Farmer Training Project

WPRS : West Paleartric Regional Section

Because of its geographical location the mainland of Anatolia which includes the Asia part has always found favour throughout history and is the birthplace of many great civilizations. It has also been prominent as a center of commerce because of three continents and the sea surrounding it on three sides.

The actual surface area of Türkiye inclusive of its lakes, is 814.578 square kilometres, of which 790.200 area is in Asia and 24.378 is located in Europe.

The land borders of Türkiye are 2.573 kilometres in total and coastlines (including islands ) are another 8.333 kilometres. Türkiye has two European (Greece, Bulgaria) and six Asian ( Iran, Syria, Iraq, Georgia, Nahcivan and Armenia) countries for neighbours along its land borders ( Fig. 1).

Türkiye is generally divided into seven regions; the Black Sea, the Marmara, the Aegean, the Mediterranean, the Central Anatolia, the East Anatolia and the Southeast Anatolia Regions. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along Black Sea resembles a narrow but long belt. The land of this region is approximately 1/6 of Türkiye's total land area.

The Marmara region covers the area encircling the Marmara Sea and includes the entire European part of Türkiye, as well as the nortwest of the Anatolian plain. Whilst the region is the smallest of the regions of Türkiye after the Southeast Anatolia region, it has the highest population density of all the regions. In the Anatolian part of the region there are fertile plains running from east to west.

In the Medirterranean region, located in the south of Türkiye, the western and central Taurus Mountains suddenly rise up behind the coastline. The Amanos mountain range is also in the areaThe Antalya plain, especially Çukurova, is the most fertile area of Türkiye.

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* Prepared by : Dr. Ali TAMER

most important wheat cultivation areas of Türkiye take place in the Konya plain of the Central Anatolia Region.

The Southeast Anatolia region is notable for the uniformity of its landscape, although the eastern part of the region is comparatively more uneven than its western areas. Harran plain is the most fertile plain of the region and several crops will have the opportunity to be grown there after being irrigated under the South Anatolia Project (GAP).

Türkiye is surrounded by sea on three sides, by the Black Sea in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the south and the Aegean Sea in the west. In the northwest there is also an important internal sea, the Sea of Marmara, between the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, important waterways that connect the Black Sea with the rest of the world.

Because the mountains in the Black Sea region run parallel to the coastline, the coasts are fairly smooth, without too many indentations or projections. The length of the Black Sea coastline in Türkiye is 1.595 kilometres and the salinity of the sea is 17 % . The Mediterranean coastline runs for 1.577 kilometres and here too the mountain ranges are parallel to the coastline.

Although the Aegean coastline is a continuation of the Mediterranean coast, it is quite irregular because the mountains in the area fall perpendicularly into the Aegean Sea coast which is over 2.800 kilometres. The coastline faces out to many islands.

The Marmara sea is located totally within national boundaries and occupies an area of 11.350 square kilometres. The coastline of the Marmara Sea is over 1.000 kilometres long ; it is connected to the Black Sea by the Bosphorus and with the Mediterranean by the Dardanelles.

Although Türkiye is situated in a geographical location where climatic conditions are quite temperate, the diverse nature of the landscape and the existence in particular of the mountains that run parellel to the coasts, results in significant differences in climatic conditions from one region to the other. While the coastal areas enjoy milder climates, the inland Anatolian plateau experiences extremes of hot summers and cold winters with limited rainfall. The Regional temperatures, average rainfall and humidity are given below :

On the basis of altitude / climate / soils / vegetation, the country can be divided into nine agricultural regions as follows. These nine Agricultural Regions are shown also in Figure 2.

1. Region ( Central North )
2. Region ( Aegean )
3. Region ( Marmara )
4. Region ( Mediterranean )
5. Region ( North East )
6. Region ( South East )
7. Region ( Black Sea )
8. Region ( Central East )
9. Region ( Central South )

On a general basis, the population in Türkiye is characterized by youth and dynamism. Based on the better health care conditions available after the 1950 's, the average life span in the country has taken an upward trend. Statistics in Türkiye indicate that the elderly are mostly concentrated in the rural areas.

Türkiye is the first location where agriculture has been turned into a culture, based on experiment. This can easily be understood from the fossilized wheat grains left from 6700 B.C. and reached up to date. People lived in this part of the world, carried on agricultural activities with the most developed methods of their own ages and left this knowledge to the other communities.

Agriculture has long been a significant sector in the Turkish Economy. This significance stems from its high capacity for production,which is attributable to the presence of a rich resource base, in terms of soil and water. In addition, the different agroecological conditions throughout the country provide the sector with a unique production diversity. This high capacity for production and the ability to have a rich cropping pattern have enabled Türkiye to meet the domestic for food, since the beginning of her history.

Agricultural production is also of special importance to Türkiye due to the increasing population and the great contribution it makes to the national economy. Until 1978, the share of the agricultural sector claimed a top position in GNP. This share,as seen below, has fallen due to the increasing emphasis on industrialization. This development must not be interpreted as a decrease in the importance attached to agriculture. The fall of the share in GNP reflects the rapid development in other sectors.

Agriculture also plays a key role in supplying raw materials to the industry. In addition, it has contributed and still does, to the evolution of the industry which supplies basic inputs for agriculture such as fertilizers, pesticides and machinery.

The relative shares of sub - sectors in the national agricultural income are as follows Crops 66.7 %, animal production 25.2 %, aquatic products 5.3 % and forestry 2.7 % in 1994.

During the Fifth Five Years Development Plan ( between 1985 - 1989 ) while the added value had increased by 36 percent per annum, the agricultural sector had increased on the average by 3.3 percent per annum. Within the Sixth Five Years Development Plan ( between 1990 - 1994 ) it has been foreseen that the added value for the agricultural sector be increased by 4.1 percent per annum. The added value has been increased by an average of 4.9 percent per annum between 1990 - 1992 period.

As a matter of fact, some of the principles and measures that have been taken for the development of agriculture can be listed as follows ;

• to promote the appropriate use of resources, to increase the productivity through the application of new technologies and input,
• to form a workable market chain between the producers and the consumers, to establish integrated market system which provides inputs and services,
• to encourage the appropriate use of land according to its characteristic, so as to solve certain problems such as erosion and to protect land resources, to take measures that prevent the pollution of agricultural land by fertilizers and chemicals,
• to encourage seed production that allows for high quality seeds or improvement of standard production.

Although a large part of agricultural production is carried out in small family enterprises, the high production capacity is utilized to grow a wide range of crops in Türkiye. The total of Türkiye 's useful surface and underground water resources is 104.4 billion cubic meters. At present, 47 % of the economically irrigable land is under irrigation. For certain crops the production of seeds has reached a level that exceedes the local demand thus creating a potential for export. Export by Main Sectors and Export of Main Agricultural Commodities are given on the Tables 1 and 2, respectively.

As seen on the mentioned tables, the exports of agricultural products have increased five times, from 447 million to 2.365 million US Dollars between 1970 - 1993. During the Five Years Planned Period ( 1963 - 1993 ) especially after 1980, the percentage of the exports of agricultural products have decreased in total export ( in 1970, 75 %; in 1980, 57.4 %; in 1993, 15.4 % ).

In the frame of liberal economy and changing of consumption habits, there is an increase in the field of the imports of agricultural products. Imports by Main Sectors and Imports of Main Agricultural Commodities are given on the Tables 3 and 4 respectively. As seen on the mentioned tables, the imports of agricultural products increased 41.3 percent in 1993. Also in 1993 total import is 29.4 billion US Dollars the percentage of agricultural products is 5.7 percent.

Despite these significant developments achieved in the agricultural sector further developments are needed.

Türkiye has a great agricultural production potential arising from her ecological and climatological conditions, land property and rich crop - pattern. Due to these factors, Türkiye is one of the most favored countries in terms of agricultural production. Agriculture is of particular importance for feeding the rapidly increasing population as well as for contributing to the national development efforts.

Total area of Türkiye is 78 million hectares of which 27.3 million hectares are cultivated. Total cultivated area is 27.3 million hectares of which 18.6 million hectares ( 67.9 % ) are sown area, 5.1 million hectares ( 18.8 % ) are fallow land, 663 thousand hectares vineyard, 1.6 million hectares ( 5.6 % ) are fruit trees and 871 thousand hectares ( 3.2 % ) are olive groves ( Figure 3 ). Information related with the production of Field crops, Fruit production and Vegetable production are given on the Figures 4, 5 and 6 respectively.

The cultivated and sown lands, being 14.8 million hectares in 1940 increased to 27.3 million hectares in 1992 corresponding to a nearly two times increase together with 3 - 25 times increases in the production of major agricultural products. The Tables 5, 6, 7 and 8 give the present information on the production of these crops in the recent years.

The agricultural holdings in Türkiye are mostly as small family holding because the Agricultural land is continuously being divided due to the Inheritance Law being into action in Türkiye. 99 % of the Agricultural holdings in Türkiye as seen below, are less than 50 hectares.

Sources : SIS, Statistical Yearbook of Türkiye, 1992.

Development plans, for five years periods and annual development programmes relatedwith them are being prepared in Türkiye, since 1963.Seventh Five Years Development Plan, covering the period of 1996-2000 has been prepared and put into action in 1995.In addition to the other sectors, the present situation, the main targets, aims and policies of agriculture and environment, also take place in these development plans. As it was proposed to increase the pesticide consumption as a ratio of 6.4 % in the Sixth Five Years Development Plan, no increase in this consumption had been proposed in the Seventh Five Years Development Plan.

The below given points have been proposed in the Seventh Five Years Development Plan Period ;

• To increase the agricultural production as an annual ratio of 2.9 % - 3.7 %.
• To widespread the implementation of the Plant Protection Activities, Seed growing and Animal health Services by the Private sector,
• To maintain the management of the natural resources and to leave the coming generations a natural, physical and social environment, suitable for human beings with a continuous development approach by preventing the human health and natural balance enabling the continuous economic development,
• To give special importance to environment in increasing plant protection, basicly by taking in hand not to damage the environment during the pesticide and fertilizer consumption,
• To increase plant production and quality by using pesticides and fertilizers conciously, to choose suitable equipments and to take research results to the farmers,
• To give importance to the training of the technical staff and the farmers,
• To decrease the support given to the agricultural products by the government and the subventions for exportation, to cancel the input supports step by step,
• To establish the Farmer Unions and to stimulate the cooperatives in order to direct the agricultural production, marketing and taking services to the farmers,
• To develop the environmental risk management and evaluation to take up the technologies good for environment seriously and to use them,

GAP, originally planned by the State Hydraulic Works, is a project comprises 13 major sub - projects primarily for irrigation and hydropower generation. The project includes the construction of 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plans on the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers and their tributaries. It is planned that upon completion, over 1.7 million hectares of land will be irrigated and 27.345 GWh of hydroelectric power will be generated annually with the installed capacity of 7.476 MWs.

GAP, originally planned as a number of water and land resources development projects, is now a multi - sectoria, integrated regional development project which covers all aspects of development including economic, social, cultural, spatial and industrial areas.

A master plan study has been carried out to establish the Region ' s development objectives, targets and strategies. GAP is being implemented by the Goverment's Ministries and agencies.

Water has been given to one of the tunnels in November 1994 and the Harran plain has been started to be irrigated since the Spring of 1995. There has been a rapid increase on the cotton growing areas and cotton production due to this irrigation possibility.

The below given big projects supported by the World Bank, UNDP - IFAD etc. are being carried on, in Türkiye.

• Türkiye Eastern Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation Project ( TEAWRP )

Detailed information on these projects will be given in Section.

Türkiye is a big country having 7 geographic regions and 9 agro - ecologic subregions. A rich cultivated plant variety is available due to this. More than 60 plants are being grown in Türkiye. These are cold, warm and subtropic climate crops such as cereals, maize , pulses, cotton, tobacco, sugar beet, potato, sunflower, rice, vegetables, pome fruits, stone fruits, nuts, citrus, vineyard, olive, forage crops, opium, tea, banana, pomegranates and kiwi fruit. Diseases, pests and weeds on some major crops of Türkiye are given on Table 9.

Data related with area sown, harvested, production and yield of the important plants grown in Türkiye are given on Table 10. As a range of plants are being grown in Türkiye, up to 400 diseases, pests and weeds that have economic importance are available. About 245 of them are pests ( insect, mites, nematodes, rodents, birds,

Prepared by : Dr. Hüseyin BULUT, Dr.Ali TAMER, Dr.Oya ÖZMEN

molluscas, mammals ), 85 of them are disease agents ( fungi, bacteria, virus and mycoplasma ) and up to 70 of them are weeds.

Brief information about 17 basic crops / crop groups being grown in Türkiy,their pests, diseases, weeds and area sown, production and yield, according to 1992 data are given below.

Cereals consist of wheat, barley, rye, oat and millet. These plants ( especially wheat ) are being grown in almost all the regions of Türkiye, because of the feeding habits of the Turkish people. About 10 million hectares area is being cultivated for wheat and an average of 20 million tons production is obtained ( Table 10 ). The major pests of cereals in Türkiye are Sunn-pest ( Eurygaster spp.), Cereal bug (Aelia spp. ), Corn ground beetle ( Zabrus spp. ), Wheatcockhafer (Anisoplia spp. ), Cereal weevil ( Pachytychius hordei ), nematodes and Field voles, the major cereal diseases are Smut (Tilletia spp. ), Bunt ( Ustilago nuda tritici ), Rust (Puccinia spp. ) and virus diseases, the major weeds are Wild oat ( Avena spp. ) Yellow weed (Boreava orientalis ), Wild mustard (Snapis arvensis ) and Wild vetch (Vicia spp.)

An average of 2400 tons insecticide, 2600 tons fungicide and 5800 tons herbicide are being used against the cereal diseases, pests and weeds.

Sunn-pest and Cereal bug sometimes cause epidemies and cause damage at wide cereal growing areas. Because of this, Sunn-pest control is completely being carried on by the government. The government maintain pesticide and equipment and gives technical assistance for the Cereal bug control, but the applications are being made by the farmers themselves.There is a total of 1.13 million hectares area in 31 provinces at the Southeast Anatolia, Central Anatolia, Trace and Aegean Region. Aegean Region have been treated against Sunn - pest both with ground and air equipments in 1996. About 1 trillion Turkish Liras ( 11.800.000 US Dollars ) have been spent by the government and 14 researcher, 335 teams and 1149 technical staff was employed for this purpose.

Cereal bug sometimes cause epidemies especially in the Central Anatolia Region. Recently there has been an epidemy in 1996. 119.243 hectares area in a total of 15 provinces have been treated against this pest with ground equipments and 209 teams, 627 technical staff was employed for this purpose.

The control procedures against the other cereal diseases, pests and weeds are being carried on by the farmers under the technical assistance and management of MARA .The Government attempts to leave the Sunn - pest and Cereal bug controls completely to the farmers in the following years. MARA has put the wheat IPM Research, Application and Training Project into practise such as pilot studies in 1994, in order to decrease the pesticide consumption, to protect the environment and the natural balance, to produce pesticide free crops and to prevent the epidemies.

Maize in Türkiye is being grown both as the first and the second crop. This crop is not only being used for human and animal feeding, but also being used as raw material for food and oil industry. Especially the hybrid maize varieties are being grown increasingly as the second crop both in the Mediterranean Region and the GAP Region where irrigation is being practiced. Maize is being grown in almost 525.000 hectares area in Türkiye and an average of 2.225.000 tons production is being obtained ( Table 10).

Major pests of maize are European corn borer ( Ostrinia nubilalis ), Corn stem borer ( Sesamia spp. ) and Wire worms ( Agrotis spp. ); the major diseases are Smut (Ustilago maydis), Helminthosporium leaf blight ( Drechslera spp. ), Leaf rust (Puccinia sorghi ), Fusarium spp. and Pythium spp., the most important weeds are Bermuda grass ( Cynodon dactylon ), Johnson - grass ( Sorghum halepense ), Wild mustard ( Sinapis arvensis ) and Goose- foot ( Chenopodium album ).

Control against these diseases, pests and weeds are being made by the farmers, under the technical assistance and management of the Government. Resistant maize varieties and the protection in the nature of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma spp. which has been determined in Türkiye and the biological control by means of mass production of this parasitoid at the Research Institutes and release to nature have great importance and priority in controlling the major pests, European Corn borer and Corn stem borer. Because of this, a Trichogramma mass production unit has been established both at the Adana and Bornova PPRIs.

A Maize IPM Research, Application and Training Project has been started in 1991 in order to maintain the control of the maize diseases, pests and weeds. Pilot IPM applications in some of the Mediterranean and Aegean Region provinces have been started in 1996 under this project. Additional pilot applications will be started in the Black sea and GAP Regions in the following years.

Rice growing area is rather small compared with wheat and maize growing areas. Rice is especially being grown in the Blacksea and Trace Regions. Almost 43.000 hectares area is being cultivated for rice and an average of 129.000 tons production is obtained. Yield per hectare is determined as 3.002 kg ( Table 10 ).

Rice diseases, pests and weeds in Türkiye are less than the other countries. Major problems of rice are weeds and the most important one is Barnyard grass (Echinocloa spp.). The most important rice disease is Rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae). There is not an important pest problem in Türkiye. However some storage pests cause damage in the stored rice.

The most important pulses being grown in Türkiye are chickpea, lentil and bean. In addition, broad bean, pea and kidney bean are also being grown. Pulses are important plant protein sources for the feeding of the Turkish people. On the other hand they are important rotation plants because they accumulating nitrogen in the soil.

44 % of the pulse growing areas and production belongs to chickpea. Chickpea is especially being grown in the Aegean Region, Central Anatolia, Southeast Anatolia and Mediterranean Regions. Approximately 856.000 hectares area is being cultivated for chickpea and an average of 770.000 tons production is being obtained. Yield per hectare is 930 kg ( Table 10 ).

The most important pests of chickpea in Türkiye are Chickpea leaf miner (Liriomyza cicerina ), Boll worm ( Heliothis spp.), the most important disease is Antracnose ( Ascochyta rabiei ) and the most important weeds are Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis ), Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), Dark blue bottle (Centaurea spp. ), Wild oat ( Avena spp.) and Goose-foot ( Chenopodium album ).

Both green and red lentil are being grown in Türkiye. Green lentil is being grown for Summer in the Central Anatolia and the passage regions of the Central Anatolia to the Mediterranean, Blacksea and Aegean Regions. Red lentil is being grown widely for winter at the Mediterranean and the Southeast Anatolia Regions. A total area of 745.000 hectares is being cultivated for lentil throughout the country. 515.000 hectares of this is red and 230.000 hectares is for green lentil. Annual production is about 600.000 tons and 430.000 tons of the whole production is red, 170.000 tons is green lentil. Major pests of lentil are Lentil weevil ( Bruchus spp. ) Clover root curculio (Sitona crinitus) and Apion (Apion arrogans) ; the most important disease is Root rot ( Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella) and the most important weeds are Wild oat ( Avena spp. ), Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis ) and Broomerape (Orobanche sp.).

Control both against chickpea and lentil diseases, pests and weeds are being made by the farmers, under the technical assistance and management of MARA. IPM Research, Application and Training Projects both for Chickpea and Lentil were started as pilot studies in the Aegean Region, Central Anatolia and Southeast Anatolia Regions in 1995, in order to minimize the pesticide consumption, to protect the natural balance and the environment and to obtain pesticide free products.

Türkiye is an important cotton growing country taking place among the first 7 countries in the world and it is the first country taking into corsideration the yield per hectare. Most of the cotton produced, is being used in the textile industry. Türkiye is one of the countries having worldwide master of words in textile industry and exportation. Cotton is also used in oil industry. It is being grown on an area of 637.500 hectares and an average of 573.706 tons fiber is obtained(Table 10).Cotton is mostly being grown in the Aegean, Mediterranean and Southeast Anatolia Regions. Recently there has been an increase in the cotton growing areas of the GAP Region because of the irrigation possibilities.The most important disease of cotton is in Türkiye is the Wilt disease ( Verticillium dahliae ), the major pests are Cotton aphids ( Aphis gossypii ), Whitefly ( Bemisia tabaci ), Red spider mites (Tetranychus spp. ), Bollworm (Heliothis armigera ) and Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella ). The most important weeds of cotton are Johnson grass ( Sorghum halepense ), Coco-grass ( Cyperus spp. ) and Hearleaf cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium ).

The cost of the control against the cotton diseases, pests and weeds cover the 25 % of the total inputs. Cotton IPM Research Project has been firstly started in 1970, in order to decrease the pesticide consumption, to maintain continuous production and to protect the environment and natural balance.Later on, the second part in 1991 and the third part in 1996 under the name of Cotton IPM Research, Application and Training Project, as pilot studies, have been put into practise in the Aegean, Mediterranean and Southeast Anatolia Regions.

Türkiye maintains its sugar from the sugar beet, grown in the country. It is being grown in all the Regions that can be irrigated. Growth, evaluation, control of the diseases, pests and weeds of Sugar beet are all being carried on by the Sugar Factories Anonymous Assemblance attached to the Ministry of Industry and Trade. Regions and areas where Sugar beet will be grown are determined by this Assamblance and growth by contract is being carried on and the grown sugar beet is being bought by this Assamblance. Almost 331.000 hectares area is being cultivated for cotton and an average of 15.126.116 million tons production is obtained, yield per hectare is 38.174 kg ( Table 10 ).

The most important pests of Sugar beet are Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora beticola ), Downy mildew ( Peronospora schactii ), Rust and virus diseases. The major pests are Beet fly (Pegomyia hyascyami ), Cutworm ( Agrotis spp. ), Aphids, Spider mites and Cutworms. In addition there are a lot of weeds, harmful to sugar beet.

Potato is being used for the feeding of the Turkish people, in food industry, as raw material in the other industries and for animal feeding. It is being grown in all the irrigated Regions of Türkiye, especially in the Central Anatolia, Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean Regions. 195.000 hectares area is being cultivated for potato and an average of 4.6 million tons production has been obtained.Yield per hectare is 23.605 kg ( Table 10 ).

The major pests of potato are Colorado beetle ( Leptinotarsa decemlineata ), Potato tubermoth (Phythorimeae operculella ), Cutworms ( Agrotis spp.), Wireworms (Agriotes spp.) and Nematodes; the most important diseases are Downy mildew ( Phytophthora infestans ), Rhizoctonia solani, Early blight (Alternaria solani ), some bacterial and viral diseases ; the most important weeds are Johnson grass ( Sorghum halepense ), Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), Canadian thistle ( Circium arvense) and Common purslane ( Portulaca oleracea ).

Control against the diseases, pests and weeds of potato is being carried on by the farmers, under the technical assistance and management of MARA. Potato IPM Research, Application and Training Project has been started in 1990 and the first part is being continued as pilot applications in the Central Anatolia, Aegean, Marmara and East Anatolia Regions. By this way, the environment and the nature in the Potato eco-system will be protected, pesticide consumption will be decreased, pesticide free production will be obtained and the epidemy of the important pests will be prevented.

A lot of vegetables such as tomato,pepper,carrot, bean, broad bean, kidney bean, melon, watermelon, cucumber, okra, lettuce, cabbages, onions, garlic, eggplant, turnip, squash, celery, spinach, parsley are being grown in Türkiye.

Some of them are being grown in the open fields, the others are in the glass and plastic greenhouses and under the low and high plastic tunnels for early vegetables. Türkiye exports an important amount of fresh vegetables to the other countries. An increase is being observed in the vegetables, grown undercover during the last years, in Türkiye. Vegetables grown undercover are widespread in the Marmara, Blacksea and especially GAP Regions, besides the Mediterranean and the Aegean Regions. 1.5 million tons production has been obtained from the vegetables grown undercover according to the data belonging to 1994 and 315.000 tons of this has been exported to the other countries.

An average of 6.5 million tons tomato, 5.3 million tons watermelon and melon, 1.1 million tons cucumber, 0.7 million tons cabbage, 0.95 million tons pepper, 0.75 million tons eggplant, 0.45 million tons green bean, 1.9 million tons onion and 0.2 million tons carrot is being produced every year ( Table 10 ).

A lot of diseases, pests and weeds are harmful on the vegetables. The major pests are Whiteflies ( Bemisia tabaci, Trialeurodes vaporariorum ), Leaf miners (Liriomyza spp. ), Spider mites ( Tetranychus spp. ), Aphids ( Aphididae), Melon fly ( Myiopardalis pardalina ), Cutworms ( Agrotis spp. ), Wireworms ( Agriotes spp. ), Cabbage root fly ( Delia radicum ), Root-knot nematodes ( Meloidogyne spp. ) ; the most important diseases are Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis ), Phytophthora blight ( Phytopthora capsici ), Wilt diseases ( Fusarium spp. ), Sclerotinia disease ( Sclerotinia sclerotiorum ), Bacterial diseases ( Pseudomonas syringae pv. michiganensis ) and Virus disease ( Tomato mosaic virus " TOMV ", Cucumber Mosaic Disease " CMV", Tobacco Mosaic Virus " TMV ", Tomato Mosaic Virus + Potato Virus X " TOMV+PVX", Eggplant Mosaic Virus " EMV". In addition, there are a lot of weeds that cause damage on vegetables.

A great amount of pesticide is being used on vegetables grown undercover, in Türkiye. An IPM Research, Application and Training Project has been started in 1990, on the Vegetables Grown Undercover, in order to protect human health, environment and natural balance, to produce pesticide free crops, to prevent the epidemy of some pests. Pilot applications of this project has been started in the East and West Mediterranean Regions and the Aegean Region provinces.

Türkiye is an important tobacco growing country. Turkish tobacco is famous all over the World. In addition Virginia and Barley type tobacco varieties have been started to be grown, since the past few years. Tobacco is especially being grown in the nonirrigated locations of the Aegean, Blacksea, Marmara and East Anatolia Regions. Tobacco growing area of Türkiye is about 331.000 hectares and the production is 334.000 tons ( Table 10 ). The government put forward some restrictions for decreasing the tobacco growing areas.

The major pests of tobacco are Green peach aphid ( Myzus persicae ), Thrips (Thrips tabaci ), Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci ), Potato tubermoth ( Phthorimaea operculella ) and Cutworm ; the most important diseases are Downy mildew (Peronospora tabacina ), Powdery mildew ( Erysiphe cichoracearum ), Damping-off ( Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp. ) and tobacco viruses ; the most important weeds are Field bindweed ( Convolvulus arvensis ), Bermuda grass ( Cynodon dactylon ), Broomrape ( Orobanche sp. ), Common purslane ( Portulaca oleracea ), Canadian thistle ( Circium arvense ) and Goose-foot ( Chenopodium album ).

Sunflower is being grown in Türkiye both for tidbits and oil industry. The goverment gives priority and importance to sowing, growing and increasing the production of Sunflower and the other oil plants.

Sunflower is mostly being grown in the Marmara ( especially Trace ), Central Anatolia and Aegean Region of Türkiye. Sunflower growing area is almost 613.000 hectares and the production is 950.000 tons. Yield per hectare is 1.6 tons (Table 10).

There is not a serious disease, pest and weed problem on Sunflower in Türkiye. The major diseases are Downy mildew ( Plasmopara helianthi ) and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum . The most important weed is Broomrape ( Orobanche spp.). There isn't an important pest on Sunflower.

Türkiye is the motherland of a lot of fruit varieties. Pome fruits such as apple, pear and quince are being grown in almost all the Regions( especially Central Anatolia, Blacksea and the Mediterranean Regions ).

Apple is one of the most important means of subsistence of the Turkish people. It is being consumpted both as fresh fruit and fruit juice, in the country.It is also being exported to the other countries. There are about 39 million apple trees in Türkiye and 2.1 million tons production is obtained ( Table 10 ). Pear is one of the most important pome fruits following apple. An average of 420.000 tons production is obtained from a total of 14.6 million pear trees (Table 10).

There are more than 60 insects and mites harmful on apple trees. However, the most important pest of pome fruits is the Codling moth ( Cydia pomonella ) and the most important disease is the Scab ( Venturia inaequalis , V. pyrina ). Other important pests are Apple small ermine moth ( Yponomeuta malinellus ), Leafroller ( Archips spp. ), Apple clearwing moth (Synanthedon myopaeformis ), San- Jose scale ( Quadraspidiotus perniciosus ), Brown tail moth ( Euproctis chrysorrhoea ), Mussel scale ( Lepidosaphes ulmi ), Green apple aphid (Aphis pomi ), Rosy leaf-curling aphid ( Dysaphis devecta ), Rosy apple aphid ( Dysaphis plantaginea ), Haw thorn red spider mite ( Tetranychus vienensis ), Fruit tree red spider mite (Panonychus ulmi ), Pear sucker ( Cacopsylla pyricola ) and Pear sawfly (Haplocampa brevis ).

Apart from apple and pear scab diseases, Apple powdery mildew ( Podosphaera leuctricha ), Pear and Quince fire blight ( Erwinia amylovora ), Quince brown rot ( Sclerotinia linhartiana ), Pear rust ( Gymnosporangium fuscum), some virus diseases and Root cancer of the young trees ( Agrobacterium tumefaciens ) are the other important diseases of the pome fruits.

Rather great amounts of pesticides are being used in fruit orchards. Priority has to be given to the alternatives for chemical control , against the diseases and pests, such as Biological control, Biotechnological methods, Cultural measures and IPM programme , in order to decrease pesticide consumption, to protect natural balance and environment, to obtain pesticide free production and to prevent important epidemies. The first IPM project in the apple orchards has been started in 1972. Studies to establish and develop a suitable IPM Model in the apple orchards has been started since 1991. Implementation of the IPM Research, Application and Training Projects in the chosen pilot provinces of the Central Anatolia, Aegean , Mediterranean and Blacksea Regions have been started since 1995.

Forecasting and Warning applications in the apple orchards have been started for the Codling moth and Apple scab since 1981, by taking into consideration the results obtained from the first IPM researches in the apple orchards. Türkiye has a rather perfect background and information, about this subject. At present, Forecasting and Warning applications on about 6.7 million apple trees around 117 stations in 86 counties of 41 provinces are being carried on. Because of this, number of applications against Apple codling moth has been decreased from 5-7 to 1-3 and number of applications against Apple scab has been decreased from 7-8 to 1-3.

Türkiye is also the motherland of most of the stone fruits, such as Cherry, Sourcherry, Apricot, Peach and Plum. Because of this, stone fruits are being grown almost in all the Regions. Stone fruits are not only being consumed as fresh and dried, but also as fruit juices and are being exported to the other countries. There are about 6.710.000 cherry trees in Türkiye and an annual production of 155.000 tons is being obtained. 11.880.000 peach trees are present and 370.000 tons production is obtained; 10.420.000 apricot trees and an annual production of 320.000 tons is present and about 4.470.000 sour cherry trees give an average annual production of 96.000 tons ( Table 10 ).

The most important pest of Cherry and Sour cherry is Cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi ) and the major disease is Cherry brown rot ( Sclerotinia laxa ). Leaf roller ( Archips spp. ), Red spider mites ( Tetranychus spp. ), Black cherry aphid ( Myzus cerasi ), Bacterial cancer ( Pseudomonas syringae ) and Prunus necrotic ring spot and Raisberry ring spot virus diseases are the other important diseases and pests.

Importance and priority is given to the biological and biotechnological methods and IPM, in controlling these diseases and pests.

Because of this, IPM Research and Development Project in Cherry Orchards, has been started in 1991 and IPM Research, Application and Training Programmes in the chosen pilot provinces of the Aegean and Marmara Regions have been put into practice since 1996.

The most important pests of Peach are Oriental fruit moth ( Cydia molesta ), Peach twing borer ( Anarsia lineatella ) ; the major disease is Peach leafcurl (Taphrina deformans ). The other important pests and diseases are Peach brown rot ( Sclerotinia laxa ), Peach powdery mildew ( Sphaerotheca pannosa ), Peach shothole ( Coryneum beijerinckii ), San jose scale ( Quadraspidiotus perniciosus ), White peach scale ( Pseudolacaspis pentagona ), Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae ), Red spider mites (Tetranychus spp., Panonychus spp.).

Although pesticides are especially being used against these diseases and pests, basic researches related with IPM in the Peach orchards of the Blacksea Region have been carried out in 1984 - 1988 ; IPM Research, Application and Training Programmes have been started in the chosen pilot provinces of the Blacksea, Aegean and Marmara Regions, since 1995.

Though apricot is being grown in almost all the Regions of Türkiye, especially the apricot of the Malatya province is very famous and is being exported to a lot of countries, as dried fruit.

The most important diseases of apricot are Apricot shathole ( Coryneum beijerinckii ), Apricot brown rot ( Monilia laxa ), Bacterial cancer ( Pseudomonas syringae ) ; the most important pests are Peach twing borer ( Anarsia lineatella ), Lesser bud moth ( Recurvaria nanella ), Globose scale (Sphaerolecanium prunastri), Red spider mites and Aphids.

Apricot IPM Research, Application and Training Project has been started as pilot studies in the Apricot orchards in Malatya province in 1996 in order to maintain the sustainable production in the control, against these diseases and pests.

The most important diseases of plum are Plum pocket ( Taphrina pruni ) and virus diseases. The major pests are Plum fruit moth ( Cydia funebrana ), Plum small ermine moth ( Yponomeuta padellus ), Globose scale ( Sphaerolecanium prunastri), Mealy plum aphid ( Hyalopterus pruni ), Plum sawfly ( Hoplocampa spp. ) and Red spider mites.

Stone fruits such as hazelnut, pistachio, chesnut, almond and walnut are widely being grown in Türkiye. Especially hazelnut and pistachio have an important role in Turkish economy. Türkiye is the most important hazelnut growing country all over the world. Most of the hazelnut growing areas are at the Blacksea Region and there are about 260 million hazelnut trees. An annual amount of 520.000 tons production is being obtained ( Table 10 ). Hazelnut is both being consumed as tidbits and as raw material for food industry.It is also an important export material for Türkiye.

But the goverment started to encourage the growth of other crops such as the vegetables and the Kiwi fruit, by restricting the hazelnut growing areas because of the bottle necks arose in the exportation and the big stocks developed due to this.

There are about 60 pests on the hazelnut trees. The most important pests are Hazelnut weevil (Curculio nucum ) and Hazelnut gall mite (Phytoptus avellanae ). The other important pests are Hazelnut twing moth ( Gypsonoma dealbana ), Fall webworm ( Hyphantria cunea ), European shot-hole borer ( Xyleborus dispar ), Brown scale ( Parthenolecanium corni ), Mussel scale ( Lepidosaphes ulmi ), Hazelnut gal midge ( Myzocallis coryli ). There are no important hazelnut diseases. However, sometimes diseases such as Powdery mildew (Phylloctinia corylea ), Bacterial blight ( Xanthomonas corylina ) and Root rot, cause important damages. Major weeds of hazelnut are Wild rose ( Rosa spp.), Raspherry ( Rubus spp. ), Field bindweed ( Convolvulus arvensis ), Corn-Marigold (Chrysanthemum spp. ) and Erigeron canadiensis. Hazelnut IPM Research Project has been started in 1972, in order to control these diseases, pests and weeds.

Pistachio is an important crop, mostly being grown at the Southeast Anatolia Region of Türkiye. There are about 38.600.000 pistachio trees in Türkiye and 29.000 tons production is being obtained ( Table 10 ). It takes place among the first ten crops being exported to the other countries. It is being grown on the drought, nonirrigated and unfruitful lands. However, studies to grow pistachio varieties, suitable to be irrigated have been started with the irrigation possibilities of the land with the GAP Project.

The most important pests of pistachio are Pistachio psyllids ( Agonoscena spp. ), Pistachio leaf hopper ( Idiocerus stali), ( Eurytoma pistaciae ), Pistachio bark beetle ( Hylesinus vestitus ), Thaumetopoea solitaria ; the major disease is Septoria pistacina.

Natural balance could easily be protected at the pistachio growing areas up to now, as no excess amounts of chemicals are being used. Forecasting and Warning studies are being applied for the Septoria disease since long years. Control on the basis of Forecasting and Warning is still being carried on, on almost 14.9 million trees, around 16 agro-meteorological stations of the 9 counties of 2 provinces. Pistachio IPM Research, Development and Training Project is being carried on since 1992.

There are about 4.5 million walnut trees in Türkiye and an average of 120.000 tons production is being obtained ( Table 10 ). The most important pest of walnut is Codling moth (Cydia pomonella ), the most important disease is Walnut antracnose ( Gnomonia leptostyla ).

A total of 4.7 million almond trees are present in Türkiye and an annual production of 47.000 tons is obtained ( Table 10). The most important pest of almond is Almond nut borer (Eurytoma amygdali ).

Growth of Citrus varieties such as oranges, lemon, mandarin and grapefruit have great importance in Türkiye. They are important income and export sources for the country. There are about 12.1 million orange trees in Türkiye and an average of 820.000 tons production is being obtained. Almost 8.000.000 mandarin trees are present and an average of 390.000 tons production is being obtained. There are about 5.1 million lemon trees and an average of 420.000 tons production is being obtained (Table 10 ).

Parasitoids, predators and Bacillus thuringiensis preparations, that are important biological control agents, are being used in Citrus gardens of Türkiye, as they are suitable for IPM programmes. In addition, oil, specific pesticides, insect growth regulators are also being used.

Because of this natural balance has not been damaged in the Citrus ecosystem. The most important diseases of citrus gardens are virus and virus like organisms.In order to control them, citrus is being grown by producing virus free Graft Shoot tip and sapling ( young trees). The clean stock programmes being applied for the citrus viruses take place among the 3 worldwide programmes.The most important citrus diseases are Citrus brown rot ( Phythopthora citrophthora ), Mall secco (Deuterophoma tracheiphila ) and Alternaria citri ; the major pests are citrus leaf miner ( Phyllocnistis citrella ), Citrus whitefly ( Dialeurodes citri ), Citrus mealy bug ( Planococcus citri ) Citrus scales (Anoidiella spp., Chrysomphalus spp.), Mediterranean fruit fly ( Ceratitis capitata ), Citrus flower moth ( Prays citri ), Citrus rust mite (Phyllocoptruta oleivora ), Citrus red mite ( Panonychus citri ) and Aphids.

Citrus leafminer in Türkiye was firstly found in Adana province, on July 1994. It was released to all the citrus growing gardens of the Mediterranean and Aegean Regions. Following this 6, native parasitoids of the pest were determined during the researches carried out later on. It was determined that these parasitoids caused almost 80-90 % natural parasitisation in some locations. In addition, some specific pesticides and insect growth regulators were tested against this pest and recommended for practical use.This pest had been no more dangerous as a result of the studies carried out in two years time.

The beneficial insects Crytpolaemus montrouzieri and Leptomastix dactylopii are being rared against Citrus mealy bug, at the insectariums in Adana and Antalya Research Institutes. Serangium parcesetosum is also being used succesfully, against Citrus whitefly for biological control.

IPM Research, Application and Training Project has been started since 1995 in the gardens chosen as pilots in the Mediterranean and Aegean Regions.

By this way, sustainable control, mostly by means of biological control is being made.

Türkiye is inside the most suitable vineyard growing climatic zone of the world. 3.450.000 tons grape is being obtained from a total vineyard area of 576.000 hectares ( Table 10 ) Though vineyard is being grown in all the regions of Türkiye, it is mostly being grown in the Aegean , Marmara and Central Anatolia Regions. Seedless grapes grown in the Aegean Region are being exported to the other countries, both as fresh and dried fruit.

There are a lot of diseases and pests harmful on vineyards. The most important pest is Grape berry moth ( Lobesia botrana ), the most important diseases are Powdery mildew ( Uncinula necator) and Downy mildew ( Plasmopara viticola ). Other important diseases, pests and weeds are Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens ), Gray mold ( Botrytis cinerea ), Grape phylloxera ( Viteus vitifolii), Grape leaf hopper ( Arboridia adanae ), Two spotted spidermite ( Tetrancychus urticae), Otiorrhynchus spp., Anaphothrips vitis and Vineyard dodder ( Cuscuta monogynea )

Priority is given to IPM and the control methods alternative to chemical control such as biological control, cultural measures and biotechnological methods. Forecasting and Warning researches for the control of Downy mildew and Grape berry moth have been started since 1978 and applications in a lot of provinces, chosen as pilots have been started since 1984. Forecasting and Warning programmes have been applied on 110.000 hectares vineyard, around 52 stations in 39 counties of 17 provinces in 1995. Number of applications that were previously 7-8 against Grape berry moth has been decreased to 1-8 by means of these studies.

Vineyard IPM Research, Application and Training Project is being carried on in the provinces, chosen as pilots in the Aegean, Central Anatolia, Mediterranean and South East Anatolia Regions since 1995.

Olive is one of the most important crops of Türkiye and is being grown mostly in the Aegean, Marmara and Mediterranean Regions. There are about 87 million olive trees in Türkiye and an average of 750.000 tons production is being obtained ( Table 10 ). Olive is being consumpted as table and for oil production.

The most important pests of olive are Olive fruit fly ( Bactrocera oleae ) and Olive moth (Prays oleae ). Black scale ( Saissetia olea ), Olive psyllid ( Euphyllura olivina ), Olive scale ( Parlatoria oleae ), Olive knot ( Cycloconium oleaginum ), Olive leaf spot ( Gloesporium olivarum ) are the other diseases and pests.

Olive IPM Research, Application and Training Project has been started in 1991 in order to protect human health, environment and natural balance and to obtain pesticide free production and this project has been started to be applied at the provinces chosen as pilot in the Aegean and Marmara Regions since 1996.

MARA encourage the growth of the fodder crops such as alfalfa, sainfoin, vetch, clover, in order to improve Livestock. Especially sainfoin and vetch is being grown as rotation plants, after wheat under the project of reduction of the fallowing areas. The most important fodder crop, alfalfa growing area in Türkiye is about 200.000 hectares and the average production is 1.7 tons ( green alfalfa ). Dried production is estimated as 1.226 tons ( Table 10 ).

The most important pests of alfalfa are Alfalfa weevil ( Hypera variabilis ), Plaginotus floralis, nematodes and Phytodecta fornicata ; the most important diseases are Downy mildew ( Peronospora trifoliorum, Violet rootrot (Rhizoctonia violaceae ) and Common leaf spot ( Pseudopeziza medicaginis ). In addition, Dodder ( Cuscuta album ) is an important weed. Sainfoin has also an importance, following alfalfa. It is especially being grown on the lands not fit for cultivation. The most important pests of Sainfoin are Bembecia scopigera and Sphenoptera spp. The most important pests of vetch, an annual fodder crop, is Vetch seed weevil (Bruchus dentipes ), Lentil weevil ( B.lentis ), Bean aphid ( Aphis fabae ) and Clover root curculio ( Sitona crinitus ).

Natural balance has not been destroyed yet, as no excess pesticides are being used on alfalfa, sainfoin and vetch plants.

Disease agents, pests and weeds, causing damage on a lot of crops being grown in Türkiye, have been illustrated in the previous section.Grasshoppers, Rodents, Birds, Molluscas and Mammals will be illustrated in this section.

Grasshoppers causing damage in Türkiye are the local species. Desert locust ( Schistocerca gregaria ) caused significant damages after immigrating to South East Anatolia from above Palastine and Syria, in about 1958 - 1960, 1962. There isn't any such problem at present. The local grasshoppers, that are harmful on the reproduction ( reservation ) areas in the forest areas and pastures are, Maroccan locust ( Dociostaurus maroccanus ), Migratory locust ( Locusta migratoria), Italian locust ( Calliptamus italicus, C. barbarus ), Green locusts ( Isophya spp., Poecilmon spp. ), Melaogryllus desertus, Pararcyptera labiata and Thisoicetrinus ptesostichus. Control against these pests are being carried on by MARA, on their reproduction "Reservation" areas, taking into consideration the natural balance and the wild life.

Some rodents such as Fields vole ( Microtus spp.), Ground squirrel (Citellus citellus ), Lemon rat ( Rattus rattus ), Lesser mole rat ( Sapalux leucodon ), Fat dormouse ( Glis glis ), Field hare and European hare ( Lepus europaeus, Oryctolagus cuniculus ) cause damage at the cultivated areas ; Lemon rat ( Rattus rattus ) and House mouse ( Mus musculus ) sometimes and at some places cause damage, at the storehouses and storages. Especially baits and traps are being recommended to the farmers, taking into consideration the natural balance and the wild life.

The birds harmful to the cultivated plants in Türkiye are: Crows ( Corvus spp.), Sparrows (Passer spp. ) European starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ). Though the birds cause damage on the cultivated plants at some periods of the year, they also have benefits by eating the harmful insects while growing up their youngs. Because of this, control against the birds must be carried on at the period when they are going to be harmful. Control is especially made by some cultural methods, such as collecting their eggs, destroying their nests, hunting and hanging aliminium and polyethilen metal- plates which cause them to escape and to remove away.

Snail and Slug damages are not very important in Türkiye. However, sometimes snails and slugs, such as ( Helix aspersa, H. pomatia ), Helicella spp., Field slug ( Agriolimax agrestis ), Arion spp. and Limax spp. cause damage. Control against snails is being made by collecting them. These collected snails are being exported to the other countries. Some mollusicides can be used at some places where their population is high.

Mammals such as wild boar, fox, badger and jackal, sometimes cause damage, on the cultivated plants, especially in the forest areas and their surroundings.

Wild boar has the major importance among these and control against, it is usually being carried on by the farmers and the hunters as drive shooting. In addition, several tools and methods are being used in order to make them escape or to remove away. However a special importance is being given to the protection of the environment and the wild life in controlling them.

Products, after harvest are being stored all over the world, for long or short periods at different stores, for seed, edible fodder and marketing purposes according to the regional properties. There becomes important quantitative and qualitative losts due to the pests, disease agents, birds, rodents and negative environmental conditions, during the storage period. The worldwide average lost, during the storage period has been estimated as 10%. It can reach up to 50 % according to the Regions and their properties.

Insect varieties harmful on the stored products show different distributions according to the ecological conditions and the crop types. The most widespread ones harmful on the stored cereals and products are, Granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius ), Lesser grainborer (Rhizopertha dominica), Saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis ), Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum ), Confused flour beetle (T. confusum ), Mediterranean flour beetle (Ephestia kuehniella ), Yellow meal worm (Tenebrio molitor ), Cadella (T. mauritanicus ), Meal moth (Pyralis farinalis ), Acarus siro, Angoumois grain moth ( Sitotroga cerealella ) and Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella ). Pulse weevils ( Bruchus spp. ) cause important losses on the pulses, in the pulse growing regions.

Greater rice weevil (Sitophilus zeamais ), Rice weevil (S. oryzae ) and Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella ) cause important crop losses of corn in the Blacksea Region and the germination ability of the damaged corn grains decrease significantly. Trogoderma granarium cause important crop losses on the cereals, especially stored in the soil and concrete stores, in the Southeast Anatolia Region. Paralipsa gularis cause crop loses of the shelled hazelnut in the Blacksea Region.

Indian meal moth ( Plodia interpunctella ), Mediterranean flour beetle (Ephestia cautella ), Raisin moth ( E. figuliella ), Dried fruit beetle (Carpophilus spp. ), Carpoglyphus lactic cause important crop losses on the dried fruits. Crop losses are important on the dried beans, because of Acanthoscelides obtectus in the Marmara Region.

Important disease agents such as Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. are widespread on the cereals stored at the unsuitable conditions. These disease agents have adverse effects on human health, because of their toxins. Rodents not only cause losses by eating the stored crops but also be dangerous for human health, because of their dirts.

Tobacco moth ( Ephestia elutella ) and Cigarette beetle ( Lasioderma serricorne) not only cause weight losses of the stored tobaccoes but also have negative effects on the quality, because of their dirts and secrections. Potato tuber moth ( Phthorimaea operculella ) cause important crop losses on the stored potatoes.

The stores where cereals were stored were constructed from brick, adobe, sundried brick and wood in the past years. It is observed that concrete stores are becoming widespread during the last few years.

Preharvest crop losses due to plants diseases, pests and weeds are about 35 % and 14 % of this is caused by the pests, 11 % is by the diseases and 10 % is by the weeds. Insects, rodents, birds and microorganisms cause an average of 14 % ( 10-20 ) additional crop loss.

Crop losses caused by the harmful insects in Türkiye have much more importance compared with the diseases and weeds. As an example, if control measures against Sunn pest, the most important cereal pest, havenot been taken, an average of 70 % and sometimes 100 % crop losses occur. This is equal to 1-2 million tons wheat and 30-40 trillion Turkish liras. Sunn-pest not only cause quantitative losses, but also effect its quality and to determine this kind of damage in terms of money is very difficult.

Another important cereal pest, Cereal bug, in some years cause epidemies especially in the Central Anatolia Region and cause important crop losses. 141.344 tons crop, which makes about 1.41 trillion Turkish Liras has been saved as a result of the control, carried out against Cereal bug in almost 90.000 hectares area in 1995.

Olive fruit fly ( Dacus oleae ) is the most important pest of olive and cause an average of % 35 crop loss if no control measures have been taken. Olive fruit fly control has been conducted on about 18.000.000 olive trees in 1995 and an amount of crop equal to 1 trillion Turkish Liras have been saved.

Codling moth is the major pest of apple which is one of the most important fruits of Türkiye. It was determined with the researches that, in some years and some places, where chemical control has not been carried on against this pest, an average of almost % 97 of the fruits become damaged and spilled.

Diseases sometimes cause epidemies and important crop losses. For example Yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis ) epidemies have been occured almost everywhere, but especially in the Çukurova Region of Türkiye in 1995 and caused crop losses on cereals at least the losses Sunn-pest caused. The yield in some places has decreased from 500 kg / da to 200 - 300 kg/da and the yield could only be used as fodder.

A total of 21.000 tons crop, equal to 210 thousand million Turkish Liras have been saved by applying control measures against the grasshoppers in 1995.

Colarado potato beetle is the most important pest of potatoes and cause almost 5-60 % damage if no control has been made. However potato plant can tolerate up to 20 % damage of the pest.

Crop losses caused by the diseases, pests and weeds not only give economic damage to the producers but also to consumers, exporters and as a result,to the whole country.The cost of the crop loss is especially being payed by the consumers.

On the other hand, saprophyte fungi such as Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. do not cause direct damages on the crop but have negative effects on human health and exportation, because of the toxic material such as Aflatoxin they produce. For example, aflatoxin can be a problem on the crops such as red pepper, fig, hazelnut, in some years.

1. General Directorate of Production and Development ( GDPD )
2. General Directorate of Protection and Control ( GDPC )
3. General Directorate of Agricultural Researches ( GDAR )
4. General Directorate of Organization and Support ( GDOS )
5. Coordinating Head Office of Foreign Relations and European Community (CHOFREC )

In addition to these, there are 4 Advisory and Monitory Units, 4 Auxillary Units, 3 Attached and 7 Related Institutions at the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. The Turkish Plant Protection Organization is mostly gathered at the structure of two General Directorates (GDAR, GDP ) though being in coordination, almost with all the units attached to the Ministry.

The units related with Plant Protection Researches take place as a seperate department at the GDAR and the units related with plant protection applications take place as joined 3 departments at the GDPC.

Plant Protection Research Organization function attached to the GDAR at the Headquarter. Organizational Structure of GDAR is given on Figure 8. As seen on the Figure, one of these 5 Departments is the Plant Protection Researches Department. There are the following 3 Section Directorates attached to these Departments.

1. Section Directorate of Plant Pests
2. Section Directorate of Plant Diseases and Weeds
3. Section Directorate of Pesticides and Equipment

There are 9 Research Institutes working at the provinces , attached to the GDAR. 4 of them are Plant Protection Research Institutes ( PPRI ) and 5 of them are combinated institutes. There are units both for plant protection and plant breeding at the combinated institutes. The names of these institutes are given below and the addresses are given on Table 11.

1. Plant Protection Research Institutes

These institutes carry on regional Research, Training and Consultancy Services, on Plant Protection. The Service areas of the institutes are shown on the map given on Figure 9. There are 6 Section Chief Offices and Laboratories attached to them, at these Plant Protection Research Institutes.

They are given below :

1. Entomology Section

• Cereal Pests Laboratory
• Fruit and Vineyard Pests Laboratory
• Vegetable and Forage Crop Pests Laboratory
• Industrial and Ornamental Plant Pests Laboratory
• Storage Pests Laboratory
• General Pests Laboratory
• Plant Protection Museum and Taxonomy Laboratory
• Nematology Laboratory

1. Phytopathology Section

• Cereal Diseases Laboratory
• Fruit and Vineyard Diseases Laboratory
• Vegetable and Forage Crop Diseases Laboratory
• Industrial and Ornamental Plant Diseases Laboratory
• Bacteriology Laboratory
• Virology Laboratory

1. Herbology Section

• Herbology Laboratory

1. Biological Control Section

• Biologic Control Laboratory

1. Physiology and Toxicology Section

• Physiology and Toxicology Laboratory

1. Plant Protection Chemicals Section

• Physical Analysis Laboratory
• Chemical Analysis Laboratory
• Residue Analysis Laboratory

The above given units were present in the Organizational Structure of the Combinated Institutes up to 1986. However todays' structure consists of Plant Protection division or section and Laboratories such as Entomology, Phytopathology, Herbology, Biological control attached to them. But the situations of these laboratories have some differences according to the Institutions.

There are a total of 191 research staff working at the 9 Institutes related with Plant Protection at present. Their distribution according to the diciplines and their academic careers are given below :

About 40 staff working at the Extension Service of MARA, Universities and the other Ministries have won the examination and will be employed at the 9 Research Institutes in the following days. Number of staff working at the Research Institutes will be 231 with the addition of these people.

The Plant Protection Extension Organization is working, attached to the GDPC at the Headquarter ( Figure 10). There are 5 units related with plant protection applications in the structure of this General Directorate.They are as follows :

1. Section Directorate of Plant Health and Control
2. Section Directorate of Plant Quarantine
3. Section Directorate for Substances Registration
4. Section Directorate of Control Supplementing
5. Section Directorate of Seed Registration and Certification of Pesticides& Drugs and Biological Materials

Each of these Section Directorates work attached to three seperate Departments where different units such as animal health, food, feed and seed are also present.

Plant Protection Application Organization in the Provinces is established as Plant Protection Section Directorates attached to 80 Agricultural Province Directorates. Seperate Plant Protection Application Organizations are not present in the County and Village Group Agricultural Centers.

Plant Protection Extension Services in these institutions are being carried on by the technical staff employed for these subjects.

Detailed information on the Plant Protection Extension Organization in the provinces is given in Section 6.

Plant Quarantine, Control and Application services are being carried on by the 4 below given Plant Quarantine Directorates working attached to the GDPC.

Plant Protection Research and Application Services in Türkiye are being carried on by the GDAR and GDPC , attached to the MARA.

However studies related with the diseases, pests and weeds of Sugar beet are being carried on by the Sugar Beet Research Institute and the Sugar Beet Regional Chief Offices, attached to the Turkish Sugar Industry Anonymous Company. This Company is attached to the Ministry of Industry and Trade.

Researches and applications related with the diseases and pests of tobacco are being carried on by the Tobacco Research Institute attached to the Ministry of Customs and Monopolies, Researches and Applications related with the diseases and pests of Forest trees and Poplar are being carried on by the Forest and Poplar Research Institutes attached to the Ministry of Forest ; Researches and applications related with the Weeds in the Channels and small channels are being carried on by the General Directorate of State Water Works attached to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.

Plant Protection Researches are being carried on at the Plant Protection Departments of the 22 Faculty of Agriculture, some Faculties of Science ( Biology, Botany etc. ) and Faculties of Chemistry. Detailed information on this subject is given in Section 4.

Though the number of Private Organizations carrying on Plant Protection Researches and Applications in Türkiye are not adequate, they are increasing since the last few years. Most of them are the private firms which are investigating the biological effectivenesses of the pesticides and related substances , for registration. Most of them carry on plant protection consultancy services, besides pesticide trials. In addition to these, there are other private sector institutitons and people, who give services in all the branches or only the plant protection consultancy services to the farmers and carry on control services during the season.These institutitons especially gathered in the Mediterranean and Aegean Regions, where intensive agriculture is being applied.

On the other hand there are a lot of firms in Türkiye, which are producing seed or importing from outside. The seed growers in Türkiye are gathered under the organization, named the Seed Growers Association.

Farmer Community in Türkiye haven't reached the expected level yet and there are no Farmer Organizations only related with plant protection, at present.The biggest and the most widespread farmer organization in Türkiye is the Turkish Agricultural Chambers Union ( TZOB ) and it has got a representative office in all the provinces and big counties.The organization especially deals with the maintanence of the cheaper agricultural inputs, crop support programmes and subventions.

In addition to TZOB, there are the following farmer unions :

In addition to these, there are some small local farmer unions and cooperatives. Government, during the recent years started to enhance the farmers' , becoming organised and put forward some legal regulations because of this.

While some firms are dealing only with the pesticides, the others also deal with the other chemicals, chemical like substances, veterinary chemicals and seed. Besides the production, importation and selling of the pesticides, most of the firms also carry on biological effectiveness determination studies for registration and recommendation of the pesticides on the basis put forward by the MARA. Chemical companies carry on introduction and promotion activities, to encourage the pesticide consumption of the farmers. However the MARA's policy, opposite to the chemical companies is to minimize the pesticide consumption and by this way, to prevent the environment and the natural balance.

1. RESEARCHES BEING CARRIED ON BY THE MINISTRY OF

Because of being a large country Türkiye has several regions having different ecologicies and several plant varieties. Because of this there are more than 400 pests that have economic importance and 245 of these are insects and mites, 85 are disease agents and almost 70 are weeds. Plant Protection Research Institutes (PPRIs ) attached to MARA are making researches on these 400 pests and their natural enemies and on several potential pests which have no economic importance now, but assumed to be a problem in future. Their distributions, biologies, ecologies, epidemiologies, densities and control methods have been determined with the researches carried out up to now and Technical Guides have been prepared and distributed to the Extension Services. These Institutions carry on the pest control studies according to these Guides.

The main targets of the determined Plant Protection Research Policy, ____________________________

Strategy and Priorities are, to increase the crop production by using modern methods and technics in pest control, to produce crops of good quality and without pesticide residue, not to use pesticides unless otherwise urgently required or to choose pesticides which are not harmful to environment, to decrease the plant protection inputs by using the pesticides at proper time and right doses to minimize the negative effects of the pesticides such as the destruction of the natural balance, adverse effects against human and warm-hearted organisms, environmental pollution, residue on the crops and to arise resistance against the pests, to maintain disease free growth material, to determine plant quarantine precautions so as to prevent the entrance of the diseases that are not available in Türkiye, with any plant and seed material, to prevent the distribution of the entered ones and to make researches in order to find out the best control methods and finally to increase the farmers income, to make supplementation to Turkish economy and science.

Researches related with IPM, biological, biotechnological and genetical control, cultural measures, physical and mechanical control, maintenance of the resistant plant material, forecasting and warning, environment and ecologic agriculture have priorities in this policy and strategy. Pesticides which are not dangerous to environment, Insect Growth Regulators, researches related with mineral and vegetable oil have the priority among the chemical control researches. In addition priority is also given to the researches on the pesticide residues on plant products, soil and water and the toxicology and eco-toxicology researches.

Distribution of the Plant Protection Research Projects for the last 5 years is given on Table 13. As seen on the Table, 16 countrywide and 25 regional IPM Projects have been carried on in 1995. Besides these 2 countrywide projects, one on pesticide residues and the other on the Fire blight ( Erwinia amylovora ) disease on pomme fruits, 28 projects on Biological control, 26 projects on weeds, 24 projects on Fruit and vineyard diseases, 25 projects on Fruit and Vineyard pests, 15 projects on cereal diseases, 22 projects on cereal and Industrial plant pests, 20 projects on Vegetable and Forage Crop diseases, 20 projects on Vegetable and Forage crop pests and 21 projects on Pesticides, Physiology and Toxicology have been carried out. Plant Protection Researches are being carried on by the 9 Research Institutes mentioned in Section 3. Research Projects being carried on by the Ministry are mostly the application and adoptation projects. But a few strategic and basic researches are also being carried on.

The subjects for the research projects are being determined by the farmers, extension services or the researchers. The researcher who will be the project leader prepares a project proposal.

Both the reports of the newly proposed projects and the ones previously started are firstly being discussed at the " Institute Research Committee " of the each PPRI. These project are then discussed and decisions are made at the 6 below given "Plant Protection Working Group Meetings " held on once a year between November - January and where all the related researchers working at the PPRIs are met.

• Working Group for IPM Research
• Working Group for Biological Control Research
• Working Group for Plant Pests Research
• Working Group for Plant Diseases Research
• Working Group for Weed Research
• Working Group for Pesticides, Physiology and Toxicology Research

In addition, priorities of the projects that will be carried on, on plant protection, subjects that will be given to practical use and Plant Protection Policy and Strategy are discussed and decided, at these meetings.

Responsibles from the Ministry, Directors of the Institutes, Countrywide and Regional Coordinators, Project Leaders, Representatives from the Universities and the other Institutions attend these Working Groups. Each research project is being read and evaluated by the 2 reporters, related with the subject, beforehand and then discussed and decisions are made by the members attending the Group. Projects are being carried on according to these decisions.

A Research Master Plan ( RMP ) of 10 years ( 1995 -2005 ) for all the researches, including Plant Protection Researches in the Turkish Agricultural Research Project ( TARP ) supported by the World Bank has been prepared.The 9 below given main goals and action plan related with this, has been determined:

1. Determine Research Priorities and Allocate Funds to Priority Research Programmes and Projects
2. Contact, Monitor and Evaluate Research
3. Implement a Human Resource Development Programme
4. Develop and Implement Management Information Systems
5. Develop and Implement Research Knowledge, Information and Communication Systems
6. Coordination of Agricultural Research and Collaboration Among Providers and End-users of Research
7. Improve the Impact and Relevance of the Research Service
8. Increase Resources and Efficiency of Resource Use for Agricultural Research in Türkiye
9. Develop a Structure for GDAR and the Research Institutes that Best Reflects their

Research Subjects Having Priority :

Research subjects having priority are being determined for a period of 10 years since 1992. Project subjects to be studied up to 2005 have been determined in 1995. These research subjects are being revised and made modern every year. MARA wants all the projects to be chosen among these subjects. On the other hand the research priorities in due to the RMP were determined according to the following criteria :

1. Attractiveness of the Researches

• Potential benefits of the Researches
• Ability to capture benefits

1. Feasibilty of the Researches

• Research - Development Potential
• Research - Development Capacity

The following Areas of Research Opportunities ( AROs ) have been determined according to these criteria and after the evaluations ; Oil Seeds and Legumes , Industrial Crops, Fruits, Cereals, Vegetables and Ornamental Plants, Feeds and Forages, Dairy and Beef,were included into the first priority group, Nuts, Processed food crops, Sheep and Goat, Poultry and Fish and Natural Resource, were included into the Mid Group ; Pharmaceuticals, Agricultural Chemicals, Fertilizers, Apiculture and Silk and Processed Animal Products were included into the last ARO group.

Later on Research Programs having priority under these AROs were determined. Research Programmes related with Plant Protection also took place as Individul programmes in these AROs.

Plant Protection Research Subjects being carried on by the MARA can be grouped as follows:

1. Integrated Pest Management ( IPM )
2. Biological Control
3. Biotechnological Control
4. Genetical Control
5. Toxicology, Ecotoxicology, Physiology
6. Pesticide Residue Control
7. Forecasting and Warning
8. Resistant Varieties Against Pests
9. Cultural Measures
10. Quarantine
11. Taxonomy and Gene Sources
12. Environment and Organic Farming
13. Plant Protection Equipments
14. Pesticide Application Technics

The first IPM project in Türkiye was started in 1970. Several IPM projects on different crops have been applied up to now and 15 Countrywide IPM projects on important crops such as wheat, maize, vegetables grown undercover, potato, chickpea, lentil, cotton, apple, cherry, citrus, peach, olive, vineyard, pistachio and hazelnut, 39 Regional IPM programmes bounded to these, are still being applied. Pilot applications related with these projects in 36 provinces are still being continued. Detailed information on the IPM project will be given on Section 9.

Biological Control Researches come after the IPM Researches in Plant Protection Research Policy and Strategy, because of its importance. The following subjects have the priority in the determined Biological Control Research Policy and Strategy :

The classical Biological control studies in Türkiye were started in 1912 and an increasing importance has been given to them since 1970s. Most of the pests are being suppressed by their natural enemies now and no chemical control is being required against them in Türkiye.

Examples to Biological Control studies in Türkiye are given below:

Natural enemies being reared in Türkiye and the pests on which they have been released are given on Table 14.

Priority is given to the following subjects during the Biotechnological Control Researches:

• To fasten the researches related with the insect pheromons that have an important role in the Biotechnological control researches,
• As the first step to use the pheromons, for insect control, after bringing them from the foreign countries, then try to register them in the country by contacting the producer firms abroad,
• To make studies for future, in order to produce and develop the pheromons in the country,
• Development, production and widespreading of the preparations consisting Hydrolised proteins, for use against the Fruit flies.
• To investigate the resistance genes to disease agents, by using moleculer biological technics,
• To obtain resistant " Transgenic plants " by transfering the pest and disease resistant genes to cultivated plants,
• To carry on the researches related with the transfer of the herbicide resistant genes to cultivated plants,
• Using and widespreading of the developed technics ( serological, molecular etc.) in the identification and illustration of the viruses, bacteria, fungi and the nematodes.

Biotechnological control research studies against the Fruit flies and Lepidopters,that are harmful to fruits, vineyards , olives and citrus have been started since 1988.Successful results have been obtained from the experiments carried out by using the sex pheromons and different trap systems. These systems are being used for the detection of the pest, observing the population, mass-trapping, and mating - distruption confusion technics.

Examples to Biotechnical control studies in Türkiye are given below :

1. It was found out and given to practise at the end of the experiments carried out on the Apple Clearwing moth ( Synanthedon myopaeformis ) that larval population of this pest can be decresaed below the economic threshold by using the mass - trapping method at least two successive years with 1 grape molleses bait trap, for each 5 trees in the apple orchards. Researches related with the use of pheromon traps as mass-trapping, against this pest are being continued.
2. Researches related with the possibilities to use the pheromons as Mating - distruption against the Codling moth ( Cydia pomonella ), are being continued. The first results obtained from the experiments showed that this method is successful.
3. Preparations containing hydrolised proteins,to be used as Bait- spray for the control of Olive fruit fly ( Bactrocera oleae ) and Mediterranean fruit fly ( Ceratitis capitata ) are being developed.

Priority is given to the following subjects for the Genetic Control Researches ;

• Contuniation of the studies related with the research and development of controlling the pests such as Mediterranean fruit fly and Olive fruit fly, by using the Sterile Insect Technic( SIT ) with the individuals steriled by using radioisotopes and chemical sterilants,
• Starting the studies related with the use of SIT method against the pests such as European corn borer and cutworms ( Agrotis spp.), for which basic researches by using the Sterilization with Gamma radiation, has already been carried out,
• Determination of the incompatible races and researches related with the relations between them.

Priority is given to the following subjects for the Toxicological and Ecotoxicological Researches;

• Increase and widespread the studies related with the side effects of the pesticides against Silkworm ( Bombix mori ), Honey bee( Aphis mellifica ) and the other beneficial organisms,
• Development of the effective and fast methods for the determination of the resistance against the pesticides ; establishment of the resistance management programmes against the pesticides,
• Preservation of the wild life by giving importance to Ecotoxicological studies,
• To make toxicological studies related with human and environment health for the microorganisms that has potential for beung used in biological control.

The followings are determined at the end of the studies carried out on the mentioned subject since 1960s' ;

The following subjects have the priority at the determined Pesticide Residue Research Policy and Strategy ;

• Determination of the most suitable pesticide, its dose and the application period ; to give priority to the researches related with the pesticides having no effect or low effect on the beneficial organisms.
• Continuation of the studies related with the determination of the Residue Limits of the pesticides and considering this the preharvest intervals of the pesticides being used, also determination of the residue risks of the pesticides and to restrict the use of the ones carrying this risk,
• Contuniation of the researches related with the retention, diffusion and decomposition of the pesticides left on the plant,
• Standardization of the research methods related with the search of the pesticide residues on plants, soil and water and development of the fast and more reliable methods,
• To give much more importance to the development of the control methods which do not cause pesticide residues,
• To fasten the studies related with the determination of the pesticide residues in the soil and water sources and to make Türkiye's Pesticide Residual Map,
• To carry on studies related with the determination of the residues on some soil, water, plant and animal based nutritions and products, by using biological materials and bioassay methods, taking into consideration the toxicological properties of the pesticides on the insects.

The followings have been determined during the researches related with the pesticide residues started in 1960s and still being continued ;

1. Residue levels of the pesticides that have been used on several crops especially on early vegetables ( tomato, pepper, cucumber etc. ), fresh fruits ( cherry, sour cherry etc. ) and the other fruits, tobacco, cotton etc. were put forward and it was determined whether these levels are harmful to human health due to the International tolerances.
2. Besides plant and animal based products, residue studies were also carried out in the Salt Lake and some other lakes, in irrigation and drinking water and soil.
3. An investigation was carried out to determine the residues 1 and 7 days after the application of the pesticides that have been used against the pests of pickling cucumber. It was determined at the end of the studies that some of these pesticides left a residue exceeding the tolerances but it again decreased below the tolerances after 7 days and on the cucumbers where preprocess have been applied. It was put forward that cucumbers consumpted before this period had passed, can be toxic to human beings.
4. Residues of the Plant Growth Regulators used for vineyards, citrus and vegetables grown undercover were investigated. It was determined that no residue problems come out if they are used at the doses recommended at the Technical Guides.
5. Researches related with the residues of the pesticides on tomato, cucumber, pepper, cherry, sourcherry, tobacco and cultured mushrooms are still being continued.

Researches related with the prevention from the unneccessary or late applications by warning the farmers beforehand and pointing out the period when the control studies have to started and the pesticides to be used without exceeding the economic thresholds determined by following the population changes of the diseases, pests and weeds, have great importance.

The following strategies have been determined related with the Forecasting and War-ning studies ;

• Improvement of the forecasting and warning methods related with the Codling moth, Apple scab, Grapeberry moth, Vineyard mildew and Pistachio leaf spot diseases, determined during the previous years,
• Starting the research studies to adopt the Bugoff-2 and Euro-Bugoff forecasting methods especially against the Codling moth, in Türkiye,
• Fastening the research and development studies of the forecasting and warning methods, against the other important diseases, pests and weeds, especially to Fireblight disease of pomme fruits and Colorado potato beetle,
• To give action and to develop the Forecasting and Warning organization, that has been determined between the MARA, Research Institutions and Extension Services, eforehand,

Forecasting and Warning studies against the Codling moth and Apple scab are being carried on since 1981. Forecasting and Warning projects have been carried out against ard Grapeberry moth , Vineyard mildew and Pistachio leaf spot diseases. Number of applications that were 5-7 against the Codling moth have been decreased to 3 and even to 1 in some places, at the end of these studies. Number of applications that were 7-8 against the Apple scab disease have been decreased to 1-3 and from 7-8 to 1-4 against the Grapeberry moth . There have been important decreases in the amount of pesticides being used against the Vineyard mildew at the end of the Forecasting and Warning studies started in 1984. It is planned to carry on control studies according to the Forecasting and Warning basis on 14.8 million trees around 13 stations in 2 provinces, 9 counties in pistachio ; in 1.1 million decar area around 52 stations in 17 provinces, 39 counties in vineyard and 6.7 million trees around 117 stations in 41 provinces, 87 counties on apple, with the assistance and support of the Research institutes.

Priorities related with this subject is given below :

• Developing the studies which are being carried on, on the maintenance of the production material free from virus and viruslike organisms in citrus,
• Fastening the similar studies on the other fruits and vineyards and to give importance to the researches and to improve the effectiveness of the resources, which will enable to maintain healthy plant material,
• Continuing the researches related with the control of the production material ( seed, seedling, sapling )by using modern and quick methods, in order to see if they are free from viruses, bacteria, fungi and nematodes.
• Maintaining Transgenic Plants, resistant to the diseases and pests , by gen transfer.

Researches related with the use of the cultural measurements such as hoeing, trimming rotation, irrigation etc. gain much more importance and the methods which are basic for IPM and Organic Farming are being developed. Researches related with the control against the diseases, pests and weeds of the Undercover growing,by using solarization methods, are being continued and its practical use is being widespread.

Identification and Illustration methods for the fast and reliable determination, whether the production material both produced in the country or brought from outside are contaminated with the disease agents, pests and weed seeds or not are being developed and the use of these methods by the Institutions making these controls are being widespread.

Studies related with the identification, detection and their biologies and the suitable control measurements on the isolated, controlled areas, against the possible entrance and spread risk of the diseases, pests and weeds that are not present in Türkiye.

Detailed information on Quarantine will be given in Section 8.

Several taxonomic studies are being carried on related with disease agents, pests andweeds, their natural enemies and antagonists and they are being kept at the Taxonomy Museums of the PPRIs and the Universities. In addition, gene sources are also being protected by establishing national collections for the bacteria, fungi etc. organisms that can be kept as alive samples.

These are, as mentioned before, the researches aimed to minimize environmental pollution and to protect natural balance, such as the biological control, biotecnology, genetical control, cultural measurements, maintanence of the healthy plant material, IPM, Forecasting and Warning, pesticide residues and all the studies related with toxicology.

Importance is being given to the researches related with the development of the new policies and strategies to decrease the consumption of the pesticides and Plant Growth Regulators ( PGR ) being used in Plant protection and to develop alternative control measurements. Besides, studies on the suitable control measurements and technologies, for organic farming, are also being carried on.

Researches related with the detection, identification , biology, bioecology, croplosses, determination of the races and the population dynamics and the effective control measurements of the diseases, pests and weeds of economic importance, are being continued.

Researches related with the determination of the possible diseases and pests of the new plant species and varieties, that are being thought to be distributed throughout the country are being continued.

Researches related with the phytotoxicity caused by the chemicals and the physiological diseases, are also being continued.

Apart from the Research Institutes attached to MARA, related Departments of the Faculties of Agriculture, Science-Literature, Science, Forest and Chemistry attached to the Universities also carry on researches related with plant protection.

Both the Plant Protection Departments of the Faculties of Agriculture and the Biology Departments of the Faculties of Science, Science - Literature, Chemistry, mostly carry on education and training facilities. However they also carry on some basic researches on Plant Protection. Although the researches being carried on by the Universities are mostly MsC and PhD studies, they also carry on plant protection researches.

Universities also let the Researchers working at the Research Institutes attached to MARA, carry on MsC and Phd studies.Their project subjects are mainly being chosen amongs the subjects determined by MARA, as having priority. Research subjects are being chosen amongst the subjects such as Entomology, Phytopathology, Herbology, Ecology, Pesticides etc.Universities also give priority to the subjects other than the Chemical control, such as Biological control, Biotechnological control, Resistant varieties, Cultural measurements, Forecasting and Warning and IPM.

There are a few Professional societies that carry on researches related with plant protection.Only the National and International Chemical companies and Private firms carry on researches related with the biological effectiveness of the pesticides against the pests.

MARA encourage to increase the coordination with the Chemical companies and the common researches at least 20% of which is supported by the private sector and 80% of which is supported by the MARA do its best for the coordination with the Chemical companies, especially during the IPM programmes.

There is a also a National Library and in addition a Central Library attached to MARA. There has been some troubles in maintaining the books and the periodics from outside during the recent years. However, books and periodics related with Plant protection could again be maintained in 1996, both under the TARP Project and the Project named " IPM Networks in Türkiye " supported by UNDP.

Researches being carried on, on Plant protection in Türkiye are being published in the continuous publications, such as the Plant Protection Bulletin, Plant Protection Research Annual, Agriculture and Village Magazine ; in the books and the brochures, published by the MARA.

Plant Protection Bulletin is being published orderly, since 1962 as, 4 issues per year and the results of the researches carried out by the Research Institutes attached to MARA are being published in this bulletin as articles in Turkish and the abstracts in a foreign language.

Plant Protection Research Annual is being published since 1966 as one book per year by MARA and the completed projects are being published there every year as one page Turkish and one page in a foreign language abstracts.

Both the Plant Protection Bulletin and the Plant Protection Research Annual are being distributed to all the related Institutions throughout the country with money and to 250 foreign countries with money or as exchange. Agriculture and Village Magazine is being published every month and consist of the Plant protection subjects ( especially IPM, Biological Control, Biotecnology, Organic farming etc. ), besides the other agricultural subjects.

Besides these, Entomology Bulletin is being published by the Türkiye Entomology Society, The Journal of Turkish Phytopathology is being published by the Türkiye Phytopathology Society. Research results related with Entomology carried out by the Research Institutes and the Universities are being published in Turkish and in a foreign language, in the Entomology Bulletin, which is being published as 4 issues per year, since 1977. Research results related with Mycology, Virology and Bacteriology carried out by the Research Institutes and the Universities are being published in Turkish and in a foreign language, in the Journal of Turkish Phytopathology, which is being published as 4 issues since 1972. Both of these two publications are being distributed to their members with money and in addition they are being send to the other countries and the International Institutions by exchange or with money.

GDAR planned to establish an Electronic - mail Library at the Headquarter and it is thought to be completed in 1996.

Results of the researches both carried out by the Research Institutes attached to MARA and the Universities are being given as paper at the National and International meetings such as Congresses, Symposiums, Workshops etc.

Congresses related with Entomology, Phytopathology, Herbology and Biological Control are being made orderly ( once in every four years ) in Türkiye. The eighth Phytopathology, the fourth Biological Control, the third Entomology and the second Herbology Congresses will be held in the following years. In addition, the first National Congress related with pesticides has been held in 1979 and the second will be held towards the end of 1996. Besides these international symposiums and congresses have been held in Türkiye on IPM, Biological Control, Forecasting and Warning, Pesticides, Phytopathology and Sunn-pest.

The attendancy of the Turkish researchers to the congresses and symposiums held by the International Institutions or the other countries are being maintained by this way and they are being encouraged as much as possible. Researches being carried on in Türkiye are being introduced to the researchers in the other countries and to the world of Science and by this way the coordination and the information between the Turkish and the foreign researchers are being maintained.

Türkiye, especially during the last 15 years had an important improvement on the telecomunication and computer telecomunication systems. MARA and the big Universities have been connected to Internet. Some research institutes and the provinces have been included into a National network system, under the TYUAP II, TARP projects, supported by the World Bank. GDAR and the 30 research institutes are also thought to be connected to a national network under the TARP project supported by the World Bank and it is supposed to be completed at least in one years time. By the help of this established Research Management System and the Library Information System, both the General Directorate and the Research Institutes will gain a research manegement and an electronic-mail library system.

The researchers will get benefits from this library in electronic information rewievs, in reaching the information sources and knowing from where and how the publications can be obtained. The researchers working at the research institutes are not able to follow the foreign literature properly at present. The most suitable ones among the international and national research abstract series in order to reach to the contemporary scientific literature will be chosen and they will be maintained as on-line, CD or published materials.

It is planned to connect the national network at the possible shortest duration, to Internet which is an International Network.

* Prepared by : Dr. Hüseyin BULUT, Dr. Ali TAMER

Graduate education in Türkiye has been lasted for 4 years during the first years.

Later on it has been continued for a duration of 5 years in 1970s. It is again being made as 4 years from on the recent years.

People, completing this education which is both teoric and practic, are being graduated as Agricultural Engineer.

There are Entomology and Phytopathology Sections at the Plant Protection Departments of the Faculties of Agriculture. However it is also planned to set up Herbology Sections. Basic lessons related with Plant Protection, such as Entomology, Nematology, Phytopathology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Virology, Herbology, Systematics, Ecology, Plant Protection Chemicals and Application Technics, Plant Protection Equipments, are being taken. In addition other lessons related with the other branches of Agriculture are being read.

This education ( MSc and PhD ) was carried out by the " PhD High Schools " attached to the Faculties of Agriculture, during the first years. This education since the last 15 years is being carried on by the " Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences " which takes part in the Structure of the Universities.

1. MSc Education : This education comprises a program lasting 4 to 6 somestres. Students prepare a MSc thesis in a duration of 2 somestres following a 2 somestres education program. These thesis are being prepared from the original research subjects. Students succeeding the examinations about their thesis are being graduated as Agricultural High Engineer.
2. PhD : It contains an education program at least lasting 6 somestres and an original research subject after the MSc education.PhD students take the lessons which are all at the Postgraduate level, during the first 4 semestres. A PhD thesis is being prepared under the management of a supervisor at most for a period of 5 semestres, after the lessons and the adequancy examinations have been succeded. These thesis consist of original researches. Students, whose PhD thesis have been found successful by the Science jury have the PhD degree.

In addition to the basic lessons that are being taken at the postgraduate level, related with Plant Protection, some other high level lessons such as Taxonomy, Biological Control, Agricultural Acarology, Insect Population Ecology, Insect Diseases, Insect Phsiology, Insect Toxicology, Host - Pathogen Relations, Soil Pathogens are also being taken during the MSc and PhD education. Some supplementary lessons such as Trial Planning and Statistics and Basic Genetics are also being given.

People at the Faculties after completing their PhD studies, become Associated Douchent, Associated Proffesor and Professor, taking into consideration their publications and some other criteria and after succeeding the technical examination.

In Türkiye, people only having these academic titles can give Graduate and Postgraduate Lectures and be employed as a supervisor.

Technical staff working at the PPRIs of MARA can complete their Postgraduate and PhD educations and studies at the Plant Protection Departments of the Faculties of Agriculture This education is being carried on with the coordination of MARA and the Universities. MARA gives priority to the determination of the MsC and PhD subjects of the researchers working at the PPRIs , among the farmers' problems and that can give solution to them.In addition some of the researchers working at these PPRIs, are being send abroad to the developed countries for the MsC and PhD trainings, especially under the projects supported by the World Bank. Associated Proffesor degree is given to the researchers working at the PPRIs whose publications are found adequate and who have succeeded the Foreigh Language and Techical exams. However these researchers cannot get the degree of Professor unless otherwise working at the Universities.

According to the 1992 data,there are a total of 64 Members at the Plant Protection Departments of the Faculties of Agriculture in Türkiye. Their distributions according to the Sections are given below.

(Including Nematology) 16 5 9 30

Phytopathology

(Including Herbology ) 18 10 6 34

1397 graduate, 180 postgraduate and 75 PhD students have been educated at the Plant Protection Departments of the Faculties of Agriculture in 1992. A total of 459 students have been started to graduate level education related with Plant Protection in 1993 -1994 education period.

Agricultural Education and Training at technical level in Türkiye has been started about 150 years ago. As mentioned above, the first school related with Agriculture in Türkiye has been set up in 1846, in İstanbul under the name of "Mekteb-i Zirai Şahane ". Another school, under the name of " Halkalı Ziraat Mekteb-i Alisi " has been set up also in İstanbul in 1891. Some other schools followed this.

These and the above mentioned schools, have given widespread services as Agricultural Schools at the different regions of Türkiye. These schools which have given services as " Technical Agriculture " and " Technical Gardening Schools " have been changed to " Agricultural Schools " and after 1980s to " Agricultural Vocational Schools " and their numbers have been reduced. There are 9 " Agricultural Vocational Schools ", 3 " House Economy Vocational Schools " 4 "Veterinary Health Vocational Schools " and 2 " Laboratory Vocational Schools ", it means a total of 18 " Agricultural Vocational Schools " in Türkiye at present.

Lessons related with Plant Protection, besides the other branches of agriculture and some practical knowledge is being given in these Agricultural Vocational Schools.

The main goals of the Agricultural Vocational Schools are to educate the Agricultural and Veterinary technicians and laborants that are well qualified and having practical and good technical knowledge so as to take good service to the farmers.

Students being graduated from the Agricultural Profession High Schools are being employed at the Extension Services and partially at the PPRIs as assisting technical staff. Some of them are being educated at the Faculties of Agriculture and graduated as Agricultural Engineers. 2160 students have been educated and 222 lectures have been employed at the Agricultural Vocational Schools in 1992.

Dense inservice training programs are being applied in order to increase knowledge and the practice of the researchers working at the PPRIs and assisting technical staff working at the Agricultural Province and County Directorates.

1. Inservice Training of the Researchers: Inservice course programmes are beingf set on every year, especially to make the young researchers working at the PPRIs learn the new technics and the knowledge rapidly. These courses are mostly related with IPM, Biological Control, Biotechnology, Computer, Statistics and Experiment Planning, Residue Analysis, Toxicology. 90 young researchers have been trained on IPM in 1995 and 50 in 1996 ( Refer to Section 9 ).The researchers under the TYUAP II and TARP projects that are supported by the World Bank are being sent abroad for durations of 1 to 6 months in order to see the new knowledge and technologies at the developed foreign countries. There are 1 PhD, 11 MsC and 120 m/m short term training programs under the TARP project ( Refer to Section 10 ).
2. Inservice Training of the Extensionists: Inservice Training of the technical staff working at the Plant Protection Section Directorates of the Agricultural Province Directorates are usually being carried on by the specialists working at the Research Institutes. These trainings are being discussed and determined at the "Regional Plant Protection Application and Program Meetings " held on, in september - October every year with the attendency of the specialists working at the PPRI s and the Extension Technical staff. Trainings related with Sunn pest, the most important pest of cereals is being carried on periodically in all the regions every year. In addition, dense training programs on the specific subjects related with IPM, Biological Control, Quarantine, Fumigation, Pesticide Application Technics, Virus diseases, Survey, Solarization, Calibration of the Agricultural Chemicals' Application Equipments, Physiological Diseases, Control of the Diseases, Pests and Weeds are being carried on. A total of 504 Technical staff, 404 Agricultural Engineers and 100 Agricultural tecnicians, have been trained on IPM Application Tecnics, in 1995. It was planned to train 464 Agricultural Engineers and 537 Agricultural Tecnicians on IPM, in 1996 ( Refer to Section 9 ). Besides these, Inservice training programs have been carried out for 13.395 Extension Technical Staff, in 1995.

Increasing the yield and the quality in agriculture depends on, to find out the new technics and technologies and to make the farmers know, accept and to apply them. Agricultural Extension is mainly based on making the farmers accept and apply the new findings, after convincing them. Directing is essential at the Agricultural Extension which is also a type of training being given out of schools.

Dense training programs related with Plant Protection for the farmers are being carried on. Training of the farmers are being carried on by the technical staff working at the Province, County and Village group centers atteched to MARA, specialists working at the PPRIs and the technical staff of the farmer unions and cooperations. Chemical companies and sellers also train and direct the farmers for the introduction and consumption of their products.

Farmers' training programs, being carried on by the Extension Services and Research Institutions attached to MARA, are being financed under the projects maintained by the National and International Institutions.The programmes are usually being applied to the farmers as teaching them the new tecnics and tecnologies either indivudually or as groups or mass. Individual and group trainings are being carried on face to face or by seminars, mass trainings are being carried on by means of radio and television programmes.

Widespread Farmer Training Project ( YAY - ÇEP ) has been applied for the Dense Farmer Training, with the coordination of MARA, TRT and University of Anatolia in between 1992 - 1995. Training programs on several subjects of Agriculture, from the soil preparation up to the harvest, from storing up to marketing, from the plant protection up to house economy, have been carried out. Pests, diseases and weeds, according to the crops,under this project and their control measurements have been illustrated. In addition, these subjects have been prepared published and distributed as books. Training television programs on 51 subjects have been broadcasted and 16490 farmers have been preregistered for these programs in 1995. In addition 70.000 books have been distributed.

Demonstrations, practical experiments at the farmers' conditions, field days, farmer meetings, courses, seminars, exhibitions and encouragement competitions are the mostly used methods in the training of the farmers.

In 1995, a total of 1.134.492 farmers have been trained on the different branches of agriculture. 27.663 of them were trained by the demonstrations, 739 of them by the experiments carried out at the farmers' conditions, 901.971 by the farmer meetings, 149.589 of them by the farmer courses, 28.919 of them by the field days and 25.611 of them were trained by the exhibitions and the encouragement competitions. In addition to these, 576.183 general letters of authorization, 83.915 brochures and leaflets, 46.760 gazettes, 3657 advertisements, 8 slides and 93 video films have been produced and distributed, in 1995.

In addition, a dense farmer training programme has been started from on 1995 under the IPM programmes and almost a total of 1600 farmers have been trained on IPM with the coordination of the Research Institutes and the Province Directorates in 1995. It is planned to train 3600 farmers on IPM in 1996 and it is aimed to train a total of 25.000 farmers on IPM up to 1999.

Detailed information related with the Libraries is given in section 4 and the subsection 4.4 under the title "Libraries and Information Services ".

There were seperate Plant Protection Organizations in each province and a lot of big counties before 1984 in Türkiye. The present Implementation Organization is given below:

There are an Agricultural Province Directorate in each province and an Agricultural County Directorate in each County which work attached to the MARA. In addition, Village Group Agricultural Centers which take services to the neighbour villages, are available in some Central villages.

There is one Agricultural Province Directorate in each of the 79 provinces in Türkiye. The following 7 sections are available in the structure of each Agricultural Province Directorate.

1. Section Directorate of Plant Protection
2. Section Directorate of Animal Health
3. Section Directorate of Control
4. Section Directorate of Project and Statistics
5. Section Directorate of Farmer Training and Extension
6. Section Directorate of Supporting
7. Section Directorate of Management and Financial Affairs

Plant Protection Section Directorate and Farmer Training and Extension Directorate to some extent carry on the Extension and Training Services related with Plant Protection

Extensionists working at the Plant Protection Section Directorates carry on IPM, Quarantine, Survey, Plant Diseases and Pests services. They take extension and training services to the farmers of their province by working in coordination with the PPRIs in their regions. Agricultural Province Directorates, make the farmers carry on the control of the diseases,pests and weeds that have been taken into the program during the previous year. Diseases, pests and weeds that will be controlled in each province are determined at the regional " Plant Protection Implementation and Program Meetings " held on, in October - November. Representatives from GDPC and GDAR , Specialists from the related Agricultural Province Directors, Plant Protection Section Directors attend these meetings.IPM Application and Training Programs, Quarantine and Survey Subjects, Problems with the Pesticides, Equipments and Suppliers are discussed and decisions are made, in these meetings.Agricultural Province Directorates make demonstrations in order to make the farmers accept the new information and technics; settle training programmes and visit farmers and discuss with them.

* Prepared by : Dr. Hüseyin BULUT , Dr. Ali TAMER

Agricultural Extension and Training Services are being taken to the villages attacted to the Counties by the Agricultural County Directorates. These Directorates carry on all the agricultural activities in the counties. A seperate Plant Protection Unit is not available in the county Directorates. Extension and Training Services related with Plant Protection is being carried on by the Agricultural Engineers or Technicians employed for this purpose. Staff working at the County Directorates carry on their Plant Protection services in coordination with the Plant Protection Section Directors at the Agricultural Province Directorates to which they are attached.

There are Village Group Agricultural Centers at the central villages whose Agricultural potential is high. Village Group Agricultural centers take extension and training services both to the villages where they are and to the neighbour villages. There is not a seperate Plant Protection Unit in all the Village Group Agricultural Centers. Agricultural technicians working in these units assist the farmers on extension and training services besides the other subjects.Technical staff working at the Village Group Agricultural Centers carry on these services by being in coordination with the Agricultural County Directorates.

The technical staff working at the Village Group Agricultural Centers try to solve the disease, pest and weed problems that the farmers are faced with, at the locations where they arise. The problems that can not be solved at the original locations are informed to the Agricultural County Directorates to be solved. If they are not able to solve it , the problem is informed to the Agricultural Province Directorates and finally to the PPRI at the related region or directly to the Ministry. Then in case of neccessity a research project on the subject is prepared. Village Group Agricultural Centers inform the Agricultural County Directorates about their activities on the diseases, pests and weeds by preparing a report.The Agricultural County Directorates inform the Province Directorates about the control ( plant protection ) activities being carried on in their location. Province Directorates inform the Plant Protection Research Institutes where they are attacted and the Ministry, about the control activities being carried on in their provinces by means of an Annual Action Report, prepared seperately for each disease, pest and weed. These reports and the problems are discussed at the " Plant Protection Application and Program Meetings " which are held on regionally in October - November every year.

There are several formal Institutions and Farmer Unions other than MARA, which carry on application and training services about the plant protection problems on the crops, such as sugar beet, tea, tobacco, cotton, forest trees and poplar. Detailed information about these, theseare given in Section 3.2. and 3.4.

Chemical companies dealing with the production, importation and the selling of the pesticides, private firms carrying on experiments related with the biological activities of the pesticides, private people and firms giving consultancy services on Plant Protection, have activities in Türkiye. Detailed information on these subject is given in section 3.3 and 3.5. In addition to these, there are retailers who sell pesticides to the farmers. These are the private people and institutions which have widespread activities in the Provinces and Counties.

These mentioned organizations have a great influence on the pesticide consumption of the farmers during the last years and they started to give recommendations and to direct them. However MARA has taken strict precautions in order to take their activities under control.

Pesticide concept in Türkiye means, all the chemicals, insecticides, acaricides, mineral oils, fumigants, nematicides, rodenticides, mollusicides, fungicides and herbicides and in addition plant growth materials which kill or prevent or stop the development of the harmful organisms.

Pesticides are being controlled according to the bases of the Pesticide Control Regulations which has been prepared due to the rules and regulations of Agricultural Chemicals and Equipments, which is attached to the Plant Protection and Quarantine Law numbered 6968.

• The main target of the controls in Türkiye is to withdraw the pesticides from practical use if they show deviations from the specifications and to offer the farmers pesticides of International quality.
• Pesticides are being controlled from the production up to the consumption on the below given subjects.

1. Pesticide control : Suitability of the physical and chemical features to the values stated in the specification, from the production up to the consumption.
2. Label control : Control of the label information related with the recommendations, application forms, protective precautions etc.
3. Factory control : Control of the factory for its properties basic for its production permission are conserved or not and whether the production is being made according to the standarts.
4. Market control : Control of the pesticides for their appropriation to the specification features
5. Production control : Appropriation of the production and quality control units with the other related units for the evaluation values basic for their management and license.
6. Complaint control : Controls are carried on and appropriation of the pesticides to their specifications are checked following the complaints from MARA Institutions related with the pesticides or from the farmers.

• Controls are carried on periodically and in an order by the related and employed technical staff of the MARA.
• Sanction of Punishment is applied according to the regulations at the end of the controls
• A continuous coordination with the International Institutions is maintained in order te get information about the pesticides which were found to be dangerous to human and environment and whose licenses are cancelled so that to forbid them in Türkiye as well and cancel their licenses.Today, none of the pesticides forbidden in Europe and USA can get permission and be used in Türkiye.

The active ingredients of the pesticides that are forbidden to be used in Türkiye are as follows:

The countrywide amount of the annual pesticide consumption is about 30.000 tons.Pesticide sector has been well developed. Foundations both formulating the imported active ingredients or producing the active ingredients in the country are available. The productions in these foundations are being developed parallel to the production and formulation technologies all over the world.

Amitraz, 2-4 D acid and isooctyl ester, cypermethrin, dichlorvos, fenvalerate, methamidophos, permethrin are among the active ingredients being produced in the country and the production capacity of the technical material is 42.000 tons / year. The capacity of the formulation based foundations is about 340.000 tons / year.

A total of 44 companies, 22 of which are producers and 20 of which are importers and representars take place in this sector and they are gathered under the Associaton of the Pesticide Importers and Representars (TISIT ) which is the member of the Society of the World Pesticide (GIFAP).

Pesticides in Türkiye are being grouped and used as insecticides, acaricides, oils, fumigants and nematocides, mollucicides, fungicides, herbicides and the others.

• Almost 1400 pesticides formulations according to the groups are registered in Türkiye. These pesticides consist of 360 technical materials. An average of 30.000 tons pesticide is being consumpted annually. It means, approximately 0.4 kg pesticide / hectare is being used. About 80 % of the country's need is maintained as production of the formulation and 20% of it is imported. The annual production, importation, consumption and exportation values according to the groups are given on Table 15. It is easily seen from the Table, that mostly insecticides, then herbicides, fungicides, oils, fumigants, nematicides and acaricides have been consumpted respectively.
• Türkiye is exporting pesticides and technical materials to the Middle-East countries, Turkish Republics and to some European countries. Amount of exportation is given on Table 15.
• Support payment is being made to the farmers for the pesticides they use in the country.This payment is being made according to the rules published in 1987. An amount of 20 % support payment is being made to the farmer for the value stated on the proforma of the purchased pesticide.
• The Province and the County Directorates of the Ministry are continuously training the pesticide sellers ( suppliers ) and the farmers on the pesticide use, environmental effects of the pesticides, human and environmental health. In addition to these, the technical staff is being trained on plant protection technics and the developing pesticides and equipments.

2. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS

Pesticides must be under control from the production and importation up to the consumption phase because of their toxic character.Pesticides are registered following the results obtained from the tests related with their toxicological, biological and environmental effects, experiments on their biological properties, carried out in the country and tests on their physical and chemical properties. Pesticides that are not registered are not allowed to be used.

• The first plant protection regulations in Türkiye is the Plant Protection and Plant Quarantinee Law numbered 6968 and published in 1957. Regulations related with Plant Protection Pesticides and Equipments has been published according to this law.
• Regulations related with the retailed sale of the Pesticides which regulate the sale of the pesticides,
• Regulations for the control of the Plant Protection Pesticides which regulates the control of the pesticides from the production up to the consumption by the farmers,
• Regulations for the Pesticide Labels which regulate the information on the labels of the pesticides
• Resolution of the Council of Ministers for the importation system of government which regulates the importation and exemption from duty of the pesticides and the technical ingredients,
• Resolution and delivering of the Council of Ministers for setting the price of the pesticides,
• The Ministry's guide for pesticide storage and the guide about the toxicological classification of the pesticides has been put into action.

Production, importation, exportation, registration and control procedures of the Plant Protection equipments are being made according to the Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine Law numbered 6968 and the Regulations related with the Pesticides and Equipments, attacted to this law. 67 firms in Türkiye are producing and importing Plant Protection equipments. 905 Equipments and 30 equipment pieces are registered in Türkiye.

They are being registered after the registration application is being examined by the Ministry and are being tested at the Test Center for the Agricultural Equipments and Machinery in Ankara, attached to the Ministry.

The registered Plant Protection Equipments are being controlled by the technical staff of the Ministry at every stage, from the production up to the transition to the farmers.

Registered Equipments and the Pieces are given on Table 16.

Plant Quarantine Services, including forest and forest products in Türkiye are being carried on by MARA / GDPC, following the " Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine Law " which was made effective in 1957 and numbered 6968 and the rules, regulations and instructions ( Plant Quarantine instructions, Plant Quarantine regulations, Plant Quarantine Inspector Instructions, Plant Fumigation Instructions, Instructions for taking samples ) prepared in accordance with it. Plant Quarantine Instructions of Türkiye were made effective in 1991, following the revision by taking into consideration the European Union ( EU ) and European and EPPO's Plant Quarantine Instructions.

There are 128 import and 164 export gates in Türkiye. Quarantine controls of the plants and the plant materials being imported, exported and passing transitly are being made by the specially trained, well-qualified inspectors, working at the provinces and the counties where these gates are present. There are a total of 315 inspectors making plant quarantine services.

The receptor country's quarantine regulations are being taken as base, in the exportation of the plants and plant materials.If a pest whose presence is not wanted by the receptor country has been determined during these controls, exportation of the related party cannot be possible and the prohibitions are in a statue of law, though cleaning of the party in scientific ways has been conducted, exportation can still not be possible. Plant Health Certificate, prepared as a result of these controls, is a model certificate that is also being implemented by the EU.

The MARA prepares Importation Permits related with the plants imported for the reproduction purposes. The imported material is controlled by the inspectors and permission for the entrance of the clean ones are given. But the quarantine controls of the imported plant reproduction materials ( seed, seedling, bud etc ) are made on the samples taken by the inspectors at the gates, by the specialized researchers of the PPRI s using the latest technics at the modern laboratories and according to the Plant Quarantine Regulations. In addition, if the inspectors are faced with a pest they cannot identify, they send their samples to the specialized researchers at the Research Institutes and solve the problem by this way.

Amount of the imported and exported plant materials in 1993-1995, in other words, the plants and the plant materials which are controlled by the inspectors for plant quarantine, are given Table 17.

List of the pests and the diseases that are subject to Internal Plant Quarantine were prepared by the MARA and published in the Official Gazette as a delivering in order to prevent the contamination of the clean areas with the pests and diseases that have been entered the country in the previous years, but localized by taking some precautions and the pests and the diseases newly entered the country. The MARA can make some changes in this list as well as the Plant Quarantine Regulations, if needed.

Govermental and Private Institutions that will establish nurseries, must ask their place of settlement to be controlled for Phytosanitary regards, to maintain soil analysis especially for nematodes and to declare the plant varieties they are going to grow and to get Plant Growth Licence by this way in order to prevent the distribution of the plant pests and diseases inside the country.

Nurseries of these growers are being controlled at least once during the vegetation and pull up periods, but twice or more during the vegetation period, if needed.Seedlings are only being controlled at the pull up period. 1753 nurseries have been controlled in 1995. After the sealing of the saplings with lead seals, permission for selling and distribution is given. People who wants to send seedling, sapling, cutting, grafting, have to get Plant Quarantine Transport Certificate from the related Institution of MARA. Plant and plant materials must be fumigated in order to get free from the diseases and pests if the Inspector requires during the plant quarantine controls or the Plant Quarantine Legislation of the receptor country requires.

Fumigation are made by the people who are trained and got certificate at the courses which are held on following the principles of the Agricultural Fumigation Regulations pointed out by the MARA.

The seed, plant materials and empty storehouses and ship fumigated, by the Govermental Institutions in 1993 - 1995 are given below,

Years Seed and plant material ( tons) Empty storehouses and ship( m3)

1993 577.222 283.089

1994 630.675 1.247.622

1995 582.740 972.605

Some pests and diseases can be entering the country, though carefull plant quarantine inspections are being made at the gates. However, the distribution of these pests and disease agents, to the other parts of the country, is being prevented by taking internal quarantine precautions.

Some of the plant pests and diseases who have entered the country by several ways during the last ten years or the ones which are determined for the first time are given below:

Liriomyza trifolii, Parabemisia myricae, Phyllocnistis citrella, Erwinia amylovora, Pseudomonas solanacearum, Tomato yellow curly virus etc.

* Prepared by : Dr. Hatice MEMİŞOĞLU, Dr. Ali TAMER, Dr. Oya ÖZMEN

The first IPM research project has been started with cotton in 1970; IPM research projects for apple and hazelnut pests were also put into action in 1972.In the following years, IPM research projects on wheat, tobacco, vineyard, citrus, peach and cabbage were also carried out.

Some of these projects are very precious, regional and basic research projects lasting for 10 - 12 years. Pests in apple, hazelnut, peach and citrus orchards and cotton, wheat, tobacco and cabbage fields, their natural enemies, the densities, distributions, biology, population dynamics and control methods have been developed at the end of these researches. Most of them are the research projects taking into consideration the pests, especially the main pests such as the Codling moth, Grape berry moth, Sunn-pest and Hazelnut weevil . At the end of these studies, number of sprays which were about 5-7 against Codling moth were decreased to 3, also number of sprays that were about 10-11 for cotton were decreased to 4-5.

Forecasting and warning projects against Codling moth and Apple scab, have been applied in all the apple growing regions of Türkiye in 1981 - 1988, based on the results obtained from the IPM research projects that are being carried on at the apple orchards from 1972. In the following years, Forecasting and Warning projects against Grape berry moth, Vineyard downy mildew and Pistachio leaf spot were carried out as well.These projects are in fact the first practical IPM Projects. The best examples of the corrdination between the Reseachers -Extensionists - Farmers have been shown with these studies. Thousand millions Turkish Liras of crop losses were prevented and pesticide consumption and control expenditures were decreased because of these projects. For example number of sprays against Apple scab and Grape berry moth were decreased from 7-8 to 1-3 and from 7-8 to 1-4 respectively. In 1995 with the assistance and support of the Researh Institutes, control measurements according to the Forecasting and Warning principles, 6.7 million apple trees around 117 stations of 41 provinces and 87 counties ; 1.1 million decares vineyard around 52 stations of 17 provinces and 39 counties and 14.8 million pistachio trees around 13 stations of 2 provinces and 9 counties, were applied.

* Prepared by : Dr. Hüseyin BULUT, Dr. Ali TAMER

A great attempt for the IPM researches was made in 1989 and 10 countrywide IPM research projects on vegetables and ornamental plants grown undercover, potato, maize , cotton, sunflower, apple, cherry, olive, hazelnut and pistachio were prepared and put into action as from 1990.

Researches on the diseases, pests and weeds have been taken in hand together in the IPM projects that were basicly prepared by taking the crops or crop groups into consideration , but they were carried out as subprojects under the umbrella of the main project. Establishment, development and application of a suitable IPM Model was studied during the IPM research project, carried out at the apple orchards of Ankara province.

In this period, Plant Protection Department of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Çukurova carried out the IPM applications at the University's citrus garden. On the other hand , Forecasting and Warning studies at the apple orchards, vineyards and pistachio , which could be accepted as the practical IPM studies were also carried on .

An important attempt for the IPM studies have been started in Türkiye, in 1994. This attempt in fact, started with the meeting held in Ankara on 11 -13 October 1994, where the "Policies Strategies and the Priorities of the IPM Research, Application and Training " were determined. Preparation of the new IPM projects on wheat, chickpea, lentil, citrus, peach and vineyard in 1994 and putting them into action in 1995 were decided at the mentioned meeting. Thus the number of IPM projects being carried on, in Türkiye in 1995 reached to 16, together with the first 10 that were previously started.

These projects have been prepared with a new understanding. On one hand, the results of the researches, obtained up to now are being integrated and applied by the coordination of the Research Institutes, Agricultural directorates of the provinces and counties, farmers and farmer associations, on the other hand, the research subjects necessary for the IPM programmes are being carried on as subprojects by the Research Institutes and the results obtained are being involved in the main IPM programme. In other words the IPM programmes are continously being progressed and applied according to the developing technology and the results obtained from the reseaches.

The names, coordinators and the Coordinatior Research Institutes of the 16 IPM projects still being carried on, are given on Table 18.

25 Regional IPM Research, Application and Training Programmess have been carried out under the umbrella of the 9 national IPM projects and the applications were conducted on 8950 fruit trees and 245 hectar field area at the 21 chosen provinces in 1995. For 1996, it was planned to carry on, 39 Regional IPM projects under the umbrella of 13 national IPM projects and to make applications on 16400 fruit trees iand 720 hectar field area of the 34 provinces. Provinces, where IPM programmes have been applied in 1995 and 1996 are given on Figure 11.

Applications are being conducted with the coordination of the researchers - extensionists - farmers, but especially by the farmers, at the farmer's fields chosen as the pilot areas.

Diseases, pests and weeds in the farmers' fields, orchards and vineyards are being introduced to the farmers practically and they are let to decide to the control measures and manage by themselves. To join the neighbour farmers to IPM applications by means of the Field Days and the Demonstrations, are planned.

On the other hand, a total of 140 research projects under the umbrella of the 16 National IPM projects, are being carried on on several subjects, pointed out in section 4 and the results obtained from these are included in the IPM Projects.

Türkiye Agricultural Research Project ( TARP ), funded by the World Bank has been actively started, after being published at the Official gazette dated 9 September 1992. Among the main objectives of this project is the preparation of a Research Master Plan (RMP ), strengthening of the research organization, training of the researchers, consultancy services, purchasing scientific equipments of the necessary equipment , construction and repairment of the buildings, establishment of the research and information network and establishment of the Agricultural Economics Research Institute ( AERI ). This project will last for 7 years ( 1992 - 1999 ) and its budget as the total of internal and external sources is about 77.6 million US Dollars. IPM, Residue Control and Epidemiology projects are among the subprojects of TARP. IPM project has 8 subprojects. These are apple, cotton, maize, potato, IPM of vegetables and ornamental plants grown undercover, biological control against citrus pests and mass production of some natural enemies, biotechnical methods in pest control, biological control of weeds.

IPM researches, being carried on as subprojects of the TARP, will cover 6 man / month consultancy services. 45 days of it is used for the preparation of the IPM Master Plan.

IPM project also covers 1 PhD, 11 MSc and 120 m / m short - term training programs abroad. These training programs are being implemented by taking the priority, into consideration.

The project " Establishment of a National Network For IPM in Türkiye " DP / TUR / 93 / 001 is signed between Turkish Government, UNDP and FAO and published on the Official gazette dated 25 April 1994 and numbered 21915. This project is being supported by FAO/ UNDP with 80.000 US Dollars donation. The duration of the project was planned as 1.5 years at the begining, but extended to 2 years by the addition of 6 more months and the General Coordinator of the project is Dr. Hüseyin BULUT, Head of the Plant Protection Researches Department. Establishment of the National IPM Network for apple, wheat, citrus, potato, vegetables grown undercover, vineyard, chickpea, lentil, cotton, maize, peach and cherry under this project are planned.

The objectives of this project are given below :

To assist the Government of Türkiye, to establish a network of formal cooperation and collaboration between research, training and extension entitles to develop and apply IPM to be implemented by the farmer community in order to reduce the national dependency on agricutural pesticides and to avoid the detrimental effects of these chemicals on the environment, human and animal health, and on the marketability of the production.

IMMEDIATE OBJECTIVES, OUTPUTS AND ACTIVITIES

• Immediate Objective 1: The establishment of a national IPM Programmes and Network under the authority of the GDAR involving related Research Institutes of the MARA.
• Immediate Objective 2: Continued technical support in the field of IPM by global information transfer on technical developments, new knowledge, data base access and literature with support from international organizations such as the FAO.
• Immediate Objective 3: Training of the selected GDAR staff in managing and implementing the network based national IPM Programme.

In addition pheromons and pheromon traps costing 12.500 US Dollars, 4 computer sets, 1 meteorological data set and books related with IPM, costing 3500 US Dollars were purchased from the project, to be used for several researches.

The main goals of IPM in Türkiye are as follows :

• Increasing the plant production , maintaining good quality production without pesticide residues,
• Conservation and supporting the Natural Enemies,
• Controlling the fields, orchards and vineyards periodically,
• Making the farmers specialists for managing the control activities in their own fields orchards and vineyards.

1. Establishment and development of a suitable IPM research, application, training , and introduction programme for the control of diseases, pests and weeds , by considering the results obtained from the researches carried out up to now.

• Establishment of a National IPM Network,
• Training of the researchers that will take part at the IPM project, technical staff working at the extension services,
• Introduction of IPM to decision makers, politicians, farmers, common sense and the consumers,
• Preparation and development of the " IPM Technical Guide " in order to be applied thorought the country.

1. Carrying out the researches as subprojects, required for the diseases, pests and weeds

IPM takes place as the first subject having the priority at " Plant Protection Research Policy and Strategy " which was prepared as a written paper in 1988. "IPM Research, Application, Training and Introduction Policy, Strategy and Priorities " were discussed and made modern at the meeting held on, in Ankara in 11-13 October 1993.

General Policy and Strategies related with IPM are given below :

Most of the policies and strategies given above are put into action, up to now.

" Application and Training " parts of the IPM programs will mostly be carried on by the Agricultural Province and County Directorates. For this reason ;

1. Extension services in the provinces and counties are also taken into IPM projects according to a determined plan. Especially active joint of the technical staff working at the Plant Protection Section Directorates of theAgricultural Province Directorates, is being maintained. Because of this, the directors and the technical staff working at the Extension services will be made to believe in the benefit of IPM.
2. IPM Province Responsibles in the Provinces and IPM County Responsibles in the counties will be determined and they will be trained on the project management.
3. IPM Application, Training and Introduction teams for each project in the provinces and counties will be established under the leadership of the province responsibles for each project.

3. Active Joint of the Farmer Unions to IPM Programmes

1. It is basic for the Turkish Agricultural Chamber Union ( TZOB ) and the other Farmer Unions to join actively both with their budget and man power to the IPM programmes as the IPM projects are prepared for the farmers and must be applied by them.
2. Farmer Unions that are already available and the IPM subjects that can be supported ( funded) are as follows:

1. The main target of IPM programmes are the farmers. For this reason, it is aimed to make the farmers, the specialists on the control measurements of their own fields, orchards and vineyards
2. It is basic that IPM programmes will be prepared for the farmers and they will be applied by them. For this reason, all the precautions for the active joint of the farmers to IPM programmes and the application of the programmes by themselves will be taken.
3. It is basic that the governmental Institutions will only give technical assistance and make training programs ; the farmers will make their own decisions for the suitable control measurements against the pests, diseases and weeds in their fields, orchards and vineyards and solve their own problems.
4. For this reason, it is aimed to activate the farmers to go to their fields, orchards and vineyards to make periodic observations and sampling.

IPM Technical Guide for each important crop, at first to be used at the locations where IPM programmes are being carried on and then for the countrywide use in the following years, are being prepared and put into action.

5 IPM technical guides on the subjects such as wheat, cotton, apple, citrus and hazelnut in 1994, 4 IPM technical guides on the subjects such as vineyard, potato, maizeand lentil, in 1995 ( a total of 9 subjects in two years ) have been prepared. Similar IPM technical guides on the subjects such as vegetables grown undercover, chickpea, peach, cherry and olive are beingprepared in 1996.

Information such as the description principles, main goals and advantages of IPM, adverse effects of the chemical control measurements, brief explanation of the diseases, pests and weeds and their natural enemies with photographs, sampling methods, management of control, phenological stages of the related plant, economic thresholds, damaging periods of the diseases, pests and weeds, will be included in IPM technical guides which are planned to be published as books.

Priority is given to the alternative control measurements such as biological control, biotechnical methods, resistant varieties, genetical control, mechanical and physical control and the cultural measurements in the IPM technical guides

Chemical control is not recommended for the diseases, pests and weeds that can be controlled with the alternative methods. If chemical control has to be made, then specific pesticides which have low side effects on the natural enemies, human beings and the environment, must be chosen in that case. In addition to these, chemicals must be used at the lowest effective doses and at the periods where the natural enemies will have the lowest damage. Also the sprayings must be carried on by using the right equipment and the application technics.

IPM Research, Application and Training Projects are being carried on with the coordination of the related General Directorates, Research Institutes, Agricultural Province and County Directorates, Village Groups, Farmer unions, Cooperations and the farmers which take part in the MARA's available organisational structure.Universities can take part in any of the IPM projects they wish to.

National IPM Organisational structure is given on Figure 12.

As seen on the structure, an " IPM Central Commission " has been established in 1991, in order to give technical assistance and recommendations in developing and making modern the policy, strategy and the priorities of the IPM and planning, application, evaluation and coordination of the IPM programmes.

This commission consists of 9 members, 2 from GDAR, 1 from the GDPC, 2 from the Plant Protection Departments of the Faculty of Agriculture and 4 among the IPM National Coordinators.

A Coordinator Research Institute and the Member Research Institutes take part in each Countrywide IPM project.Projects are coordinated and applied by an " IPM Project Coordinator " chosen by the Coordinator Research Institute throughout the country, " IPM Regional Leader " chosen by the Member Research Institutes at the regions, " IPM Province Responsibles " chosen by the Agricultural Province Directorates in each province, " IPM County Responsibles " chosen by the Agricultural County Directorates in each county. This activity is being carried on by the leader farmers at the villages.

Establishment of the " IPM Networtks " for each important crop has been started in order to maintain the coordination, technical collaboration and the communication between the Research Institutes and the Agricultural Province and County Directorates taking part in the IPM programmes.

As the first step it is planned to establish one " National IPM Network " for each of apple, vineyard, wheat, maize, cotton, citrus, vegetables grown undercover, potato, cherry, peach, chickpea and lentil ( a total of 12 ). Later on it is planned to establish similar Networks for olive, hazelnut, pistachio and apricot IPM programmes.

General IPM Network planned to be established between the PPRI s is given on Figure 13 and the Network prepared for the "IPM Research, Application and Training Projects in Apple Orchards " is given on Figure 14.

National IPM Network in Apple Orchards is being established by considering and making use of the background of the 117 " Forecasting and Warning Station " activated in 1981 and still available in 86 counties attached to 41 provinces. Likewise," IPM Network in Vineyard" is being established on the basis of the 52 " Forecasting and Warning Stations " available in 39 counties attached to 17 provinces.

National IPM Networks will be supported with the Computer communication Network and perhaps will be completely constructed on it in future. For this purpose, Research Institutes must have been connected to each other and to GDAR and later on the Agricultural Province Directorates are planned to be included to these Computer Networks.They are at last planned to be connected to Internet and the other International Computers Networtk in 1-2 years time.

1. Basic training seminars on IPM for the Junior Staff working at the Research Institutes and advanced training for the Researchers having background on IPM are being established.A total of 90 Researchers have been trained by this way in 1995.
2. IPM Seminars are being held on at least once a year in order to make the Researchers gain IPM background and develop it.
3. In addition to these National Congresses, Symposiums, Workshops and Panels on IPM will be held on.
4. 1 Phd, 11 MSc and 120 m / m short - termed training programs abroad were proposed in the TARP, funded by the World Bank. These trainings will be used according to a programme in between 1996 - 1999.
5. 2.5 m / m short - termed training program abroad take place in the project titled " Establishment of a National Network for Integrataed Pest Management ( IPM ) in Türkiye " funded by FAO / UNDP. These trainings were used for 3 researchers for a duration of 21 days and one researcher for a duration of 15 days.
6. The studytours maintained from the supports gained by the trainings abroad and the other sources, will enable the researchers to see the IPM studies in the other countries, to increase their knowledge, experience and transfer these to the other researchers following their return.

1. Technical staff working at the extension services taking part in the IPM projects are being trained as groups of 25-30 people.The trainings are being made practically in the fields, orchards and vineyards. Atotal of 504 technical staff have been trained in 1995. A total of 1010 technical staff is planned to be trained in 1996.
2. " IPM Province and County responsibles " are being chosen among this staff, they are being trained to manage the IPM programmes in their own provinces and counties and assistance as trainers is asked from them in practice.
3. Province and county programme responsibles are being trained as an IPM specialist and program implementer ( team establishment, group dynamism, leadership, management, communication, problem solving etc. )
4. IPM teams established with the technical staff carry on their studies together with the farmers and at the same conditions.
5. Trainings of the technical staff are being followed, controlled and evaluated by the National IPM Project Coordinatiors and the Regional IPM Leaders.
6. Trainings of the technical staff is being planned and applied as countrywide manner and for some subjects and Regional manner for the others.
7. The following subjects have great importance during the training programmes.

• Policy, strategy and priorities of IPM
• IPM concept, principles, objectives and benefits
• Side effects of the chemicals, points to be considered while chosing and applying the chemicals
• Introduction of the IPM programmes from which they are responsible and where they are charged,
• Sampling methods used in IPM
• To give information about the diseases, pests and weeds and their natural enemies
• Evaluation of the results and decision making
• Economic thresholds
• Analysis of Agro - ecosystem
• IPM Technical Guides
• Working plan and project preparation
• Project management
• Report preparation
• Preparation and application of the farmer training programmes
• Introduction of IPM
• Other subjects

1. Attendence of the technical staff working at the official and private institutions related with the subject, other than the ones attached to the Ministry are being maintained.

These trainings are planned and applied by the National IPM Coordinators and Regional IPM Leaders as consisting the farmers according to an order.

1. The following methods are being used during the training of the farmers on IPM

• Practical training in the field, orchard and vineyard
• Field days
• Demonstrations
• Training by radio and television
• Training by farmer newsletters, brochures etc.

1. Farmers are being trained by the technical staff (especially Province and County responsibles ) working at the provinces, counties and the village groups and previously trained on IPM.
2. National Programme Coordinators and the Regional IPM Leaders are planning, implementing , controlling and evaluating the trainings.
3. It is basicly aimed to make the farmers an IPM specialist and manage the control activities in their own fields, vineyards and orchards.
4. Trainings are being carried on as groups of 25-30 people each and practically in the fields, vineyards and orchards.
5. Meanwhile some farmers are being trained as potential trainers( Leader farmer ) from whom assistance in the training of the other farmers will be asked.
6. Trainings are orderly being followed, controlled and evaluated by the Province and County IPM responsibles.National Project Coordinators and Regional IPM Leaders sometimes attend these studies.
7. Programmes are developed for the training of the women farmers and the young people.
8. Trainings are being planned and applied so as to consist the control activities of the Crop that is subject to the project, during its growing season.
9. The duration and how often the trainings will be repeated are being determined by the National Project Coordinator, Regional IPM Leader, Province and County IPM responsibles according to the crops.
10. Training especially on the following subjects are being given to the farmers;

• IPM concept, its principles, objectives and benefits,
• Side effects of the chemical pesticides, important points that must be considered in chosing and applying the chemicals,
• Introduction of the disease agents, pests and weeds and their natural enemies,
• Sampling period and intervals,
• Sampling methods used in IPM,
• Evaluation of the results and decision making,
• Analysis of Agro-ecosystem,
• Make people believe in acting as a group and make the control activities together (Group dynamism ),

A total of 1600 farmers have been trained on IPM in 1995. It is planned to train a total of 3600 farmers in 1996.

The farmers will be able to identify the diseases, pests and weeds in their fields, vineyards and orchards, to follow them periodically and make decisions according to the information ( knowledge ), to gain facilities, to make critics and analysis and to trust themselves, at the end of these trainings.

The following problems arise during the application of the IPM projects :

1. The government cannot share adequate fund to the Research Institutes and Extension Services for the application of the IPM programmes . For this reason, it is needed to get additional, extra fund from the International Institutions and the other countries, in order to carry on the programmes as they are planned.
2. As the farmers are not well organised in Türkiye, they cannot join the IPM studies as it is wanted and for this reason cannot share enough fund to the studies. Because of this, it is needed to talk with each farmer and to make each of them believein taking up the IPM seriously. However, the government during the recent years has a great attempt to organise the farmers
3. As the pest control during the previous years was mostly being carried on by the government or with the government's assistance , farmers got used to this situation.Farmers insist on the government's continuation of the controls against Sunn pest, Cereal bug, Grasshopper and Olive fly, which are still being done by the government.This situation causes important trouble especially for the application of the IPM programmes by the farmers against the crops such as wheat and olive. However government plans to give up the government's support in about a few years time.
4. Like in the other countries, farmers in Türkiye also hesitate to leave their traditional growing technics and control methods and to take up the new knowledge and technics seriously
5. Subvention (tax return), as a ratio of 20 % percent of the cost of the pesticide they consumpted is given to the farmers who use pesticides against the pests in Türkiye. This support stimulates the farmers to use pesticides. However the government started an attempt to correct this situation.
6. As they have an important economic power and widespread organization, chemical companies make good promotions and pesticide introductions and stimulate the consumption of the pesticides by the farmers.
7. Some of the farmers have tendency to make chemical control in order to guarantee their productions and not to risk themselves. For this reason, they hesitate to accept the new technics such as biological control, IPM etc.
8. There arise some difficulties in the collaboration and coordination of the application of the IPM programmes, as the research and extension services related with Plant Protection take place at the different General directorates and departments in the Organisational structure of the MARA.
1. An increasing need for the technical staff arise in the research institutions and extension services as no researcher and extension staff are employed at the research and extension organisations of the MARA since the last 8 years, because of the policy to smallen the Official Organisations ( Government ).This situation prevents the widespreading of the IPM applications as the desired level.
1. Great troubles in applying the IPM programmes arise, as the farmers applying IPM can not sell their products with a higher price and the studies for preparing the regulations related with moderning the registration of the pesticides and the sanctions that will be applied to the farmers who use excess pesticides and whose productions carry pesticide residue, are not completed yet. These cause great problems in applying the IPM programmes.

1. Türkiye Agricultural Research Project ( TARP ): That is supported by the World Bank has been put into action in 1992. This project covers the researches related with Agriculture, Forest and Rural Affairs. RMP, strenghtening of the Research Organization, training of the researchers, consultancy services, purchasing scientific equipments, construction and repairment of the buildings, establishment of the Research and Information Network and Establishment of the Economic Researches Institute are among the objectives of the Project. This project has a duration of 7 years and an external support of 55 million has been maintained from the World Bank. Among the subprojects of the TARP project, there are IPM, Residue and Control and Epidemiology Projects.

Detailed information about this project has been given in IPM Programmes ( Section 9) RMP , including the Plant Protection Researches under this project has been prepared for a duration of 10 years ( 1995 - 2005 ).There exists 9 main targets in this plan. In addition ROF ( Research Opportunity Fields ), Research programs and priorities, targets and strategies of the projects have been determined. Detailed information about this subject has been given in Section ( 4.1. ), Research in Plant Protection.

2. Agricultural Extension and Applied Research Project ( TYUAP ): First ( I. ) and Second ( II. ) TYUAP Projects , some of which have been funded by the World Bank is being carried on since 1986, in Türkiye. These projects being carried on together with the Research Institutes and Extension Services are being applied in 39 provinces. The main target of this project is to assist the increase of the farmers incomes sustainably and the agricultural productivity, by maintaining the widespread accept of the new Agricultural technics by the farmers. Research, Extension and Training Services on Plant protection are also being taken to the farmers by this project.
3. Village Group Agricultural Centers mentioned on Section 6.1.3 are being established in order to take the farmers more effective and better services by this project. In addition to these laboratory and technical training and information equipments, periodics and books for the Research and Extension Institutions have been purchased from this project.Apart from these short and long term training ( MsC, PhD ) possibilities abroad for the researchers have been maintained.

The total budget of the First ( I. ) TYUAP Project is 145.4 million US Dollars. The first project has been applied in 18 provinces. Second ( II. ) TYUAP Project is being applied in 21 provinces of the 4 different agroecological regions.

4. Türkiye Eastern Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation Project Global Environmental Facility Sub-project Institute Conservation of Genetic Diversity World Bank supports this project which is being carried on by the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Forest and Ministry of Environment, with a donation of 4 million Dollars. It is aimed to protect some plants In-situ and Ex-situ as gen sources, in this project. In addition, it is aimed to protect some insects, mites and weeds. The duration of this project is 3 years ( 1994 - 1996 ).

* Prepared by : Dr. Hüseyin BULUT, Dr. Ali TAMER

A lot of projects, on Plant protection supported by FAO / UNDP and TCP have been carried out and / or still being carried on in Türkiye since up to now.

1. Establishment of a National Network for Integrated Pest Management ( IPM ) in Türkiye ( TUR- 93- 001 ) : This project is being supported by UNDP with 80.000 US Dollars donation. The duration of the project is 2 years and the coordinator is the Plant Protection Research Department (GDAR ). 12 National IPM Networks will be established as a first step for each of the subjects such as apple, vineyard, wheat, maize, cotton, citrus, vegetables grown undercover, potato, cherry, peach, chickpea and lentil, under this project. It is planned to establish similar Networks for the other IPM programmes.

2 m / m foreign consultants were proposed in the project and these consultants had assistances in the establishment and implementation of an ideal National IPM Network. A National Workshop on the Establishment of an IPM Network in Türkiye had been held on in Ankara in 17 - 21 April 1995, under this project.

Training of the 4 Turkish specialists abroad, each for a duration of 21 days have been proposed in the project. A researcher has visited Germany on " IPM and Forecasting and Warning in Apple Orchards "a specialist has visited Netherlands on " IPM on the Vegetables grown undercover " and a researcher has visited USA on " IPM on Cotton ", each for a duration of 21 days and a researcher has visited Italy on " IPM on Vineyards " for a duration of 15 days.

Books, periodics, computer, insect traps and feromons, meteorological data sets have been all purchased from these projects.

2. Projects Supported by FAO / UNDP and TCP: FAO has supported the leading Citrus Research Institute in Antalya by project TCP / TUR / 8855 " Citrus Improvement Through Control of Virus Like Diseases " and project TCP / TUR / 8856 " Assistance in Support of Biological Pest Control ". Both projects terminated in 1991. They had a catalytic effect in bringing about awareness in the Government that Türkiye has capable expertise in pest and disease control with potential for wider use in the national and regional context.
3. Also as a follow- up for project TCP / TUR / 8855 the Government was involved in the regional project RAB / 88 / 025 " Control of Virus and Virus Like Diseases in Fruit Crops"
4. Under remaining funds of project TCP / TUR / 8856 FAO was requested to field of consultancy mission to evaluate national efforts and capabilities in the field of IPM and or the basis of this a long term plan was convenienced and proposed for strehgthening research and implementing IPM systems in Türkiye. The project stated on section 10.1.2 has been taken and carried out according to this plan.
5. Türkiye has also taken place in the Plant protection projects given below and are being carried on Globally and with the Near East Countries ;

• Strengthening and Development of the Integrated Pest Management Programmes and Networks in Türkiye; It was prepared and proposed by GDAR and given to FAO / UNDP in 1995. It will be applied throughout the country.
• Biological Control of Sunnpest ; It was prepared and proposed by the Antalya Citrus and Greenhouse Research Institute. It has been given to FAO and TCP. FAO has made a check and asked for some redactions.The project is at the acceptance stage by FAO.
• Development and Implementation of Strategies to reduce pesticide use in Türkiye ; It was prepared and proposed by GDAR and given to FAO and TCP and will be applied throughout the country. This project is amongst the projects that are found worth to be supported by FAO / TCP.

1. In addition to these hosbitality to the Workshop or meetings held on in Türkiye and the Middle East Countries has been carried out or specialists were send to them.

1. IPM draft projects related with Citrus, Cotton and Sunn-pest have been prepared at these meetings.

Studies are being carried on with a great coordination with EPPO where Türkiye is also a member. A great coordination is being made and assistance is being maintained from EPPO, especially on the quarantine diseases and pests, Guides for the efficacy evaluation of the plant protection products, against the diseases, pests and weeds. In addition the EPPO Bulletin and the other publications are being send to Türkiye.

Assistance is being maintained and coordination on a lot of subjects is being made with IOBC where Türkiye is also a member. Coordination is being made with IOBC on Biological Control, IPM, methods to determine the side effects of pesticides on the natural enemies. In addition IOBC WPRS Bulletin published by IOBC is also being send to Türkiye.

Coordination and collaboration with OECD where Türkiye is also a founder member, is being made on Plant Protection as well as the other branches of Agriculture.

OECD gives training scholarships to the Turkish specialists for the Post Doctorate studies abroad on the different subjects of Plant Protection, for the Management of Biological Resources under the subproject " Assesment of Benefits and Risks of Introducing New Organisms in Agricultural Practice ".

In addition, coordination is being made on the registration of the pesticides, biopesticides, biological control agents, semichemicals, pheromons , Insect Growth Regulators ( IGR) and Plant Growth Regulators ( PGR ), preparation of the laws and regulations and the monographs related with them.

Coordination is being made with the IAEA where Türkiye is also a member, on the use of Atomic Energy in the field of Plant Protection. Especially common projects have been carried out on the sterilization of the pests such as Mediterranean fruit fly ( Ceratitis capitata ), Olive fruit fly ( Dacus oleae ) and European corn borer ( Ostrinia nubilalis ) by using the radioisotopes ( Sterile Insect Technique = SIT ) and training of some Turkish specialists abroad on this subject, has been maintained.

Because of being a member of NATO, Türkiye has maintained great support for a lot of projects on Plant protection under the " Research Related to the Social Environment " which is a subproject of "Committee on the Challeges of Modern Society (CCMS) and a lot of Turkish researchers were trained abroad under the CCMS Fellowship Programme.

There is a good coordination with the CHIEAM where Türkiye is also a founder member, on plant protection as well as the other branches of Agriculture. Support from CHIEAM is maintained on the training of the Turkish specialists abroad especially on the subjects such as IPM and Biological Control.

Some common researches on Plant Protection are being carried on and support for training is being maintained from CIP where Türkiye is also a member. As an example " Investigations on the use of Bacillus thuringiensis against Potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella )" which is a subproject of the project "Development of IPM Systems for PTM" has been started in 1994 with the support of this Institution.

The objectives of this project are ;

1. To test the efficciency of Bt applications during the storage period as a control measure and to study the feasibility of the method at farm level
2. To investigate resistance development in PTM laboratory colonies.

10. . International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry

A common project that will be carried on with the coordination of the Adana PPRI and ICARDA, is being prepared on the Sunn-pest , harmful on Wheat.

Research Institutes and Universities in Türkiye have important coordination with CIMMYT on Plant Protection Researches and training, besides the other branches of Agriculture. Assistance, both for research and the training of the Turkish specialists abroad is being maintained from this Institution according to the agreement signed between the Turkish Government and this Institution. Though these assistances are especially on the breeding and growing of wheat and maize, they can comprise the subjects such as control against wheat and maize diseases.

As being an Islamic Country Türkiye gets support from the Islamic Development Bank under the Organization of Islamic Conference and ISEDAK, for some research projects on Plant Protection and the training of the Turkish specialists abroad, as well as the other subjects.

As being a founder member of ECO, Türkiye maintains coordination and assistance with the other member countries. But the plant protection activities being carried on under ECO are not at an adequate level.

UTF supports several Rural Development projects. They are as follows ;

Short or long term training programs of some Turkish specialists abroad on different branches of agriculture have been completed in these projects. Activities related with Plant Protection also take place in these projects.

There are a lot of projects in Türkiye being carried on by the coordination of two countries. Some of them are given below ;

1. Researches on the Side effects of Some Pesticides on the Beneficial Organisms: This project is being carried on with the coordination between the Plant Protection Department of the Yalova Atatürk Horticulture Central Research Institute and the Southampton University in England.Side effects of some widely used pesticides on the honey bees, silkworms some parazitoids and predators are being investigated under this project.In addition Turkish and English specialists visited the countreis under this project.
2. British Council: BC maintains training opportunities for a lot of Turkish specialists in England on the different disciplines of Plant protection, under the agreements between the Turkish and English Governments.

Technical coordination is being made and some common projects are being carried on related with Plant protection with the USA Ministry of Agriculture ( USDA ), EPA and some American Universities. Technical assistance is being taken from EPA, especially on the pesticides, residue control and tolerances. In addition, a study named " Exploration of Fungal Endophytics in Wild Cereals " has been carried out in 1994 - 1995 both in Türkiye and USA with the coordination of Ankara PPRI, Texas A and M University and Texas Agricultural Research and Extension Center. Material and information exchange have been made between these two countries. Besides these, a Turkish specialist for a duration of 13 months had a training opportunity at the Texas A and M University, on the identification of the Endophytic fungi and the possibilities to use them in the Biological control.

* Prepared by : Dr. Hüseyin BULUT, Dr. Ali TAMER

Source : Undersecretariat for Treasury and Foreign Trade, Office Records.

Source : Undersecretariat for Treasury and Foreign Trade, Office Records.

Source : Undersecretariat for Treasury and Foreign Trade, Office Records.

Source : Undersecretariat for Treasury and Foreign Trade, Office Records.

Sources : SIS, Summary of Agricultural Statistics, 1992 and MARA

Source : SIS, and MARA

Table 8. Production of Some Vegetables ( Thousand Tons )

Source : SIS, Summary of Agricultural Statistics, 1992 and MARA

Crops Diseases, Pests, Weeds’ Names

Wheat Sunn-pest ( Eurygaster spp.), Cereal bug (Aelia spp.), Bunt (Tilletia

Maize Corn borers (Ostrinia nubilalis, Sesamia spp.).

Cotton Cotton wilt (Verticillium dahliae ), White fly (Bemisia tabaci ),

Potato Colorado beetle(Leptinotarsa decemlineata ), Late blight

Vegetables White fly( Bemisia tabaci ). Red mites (Tetranychus spp. ), Aphids,

Apple Codling moth ( Cydia pomenella ), Apple scap ( Venturia inaqualis ),

Citrus Virus diseases, Citrus mealy bug ( Planococcus citri ), Citrus leaf

Olive Olive fruit fly ( Dacus olae ), Olive moth ( Prays oleae )

Vineyard Grape berry moth (Lobesia botrana ), Downy mildew (Plasmophora

Hazelnut Hazelnut weevil ( Balaninus nucum ), Hazelnut gall mite ( Eriophyes

Peach Oriental fruit moth ( Cydia molesta ), Peach twig borer ( Anarsia

Cherry Cherry fruit fly ( Rhagoletis cerasi ), Leaf roller ( Archips spp. ),

Lentil Lentil weevil ( Apion arrogans ), Weeds, Root-rot ( Phoma medicaginis)

Chickpea Chickpea leafminer ( Liriomyza cicerina ), Leaf spot ( Ascochyta rabiei )

Pistachio Leaf psylla ( Agonoscena targioni ), Twig borer ( Kermania pistaciella ),

Pear Fire blight ( Erwinia amylovora ), Pear psylla ( Psylla pyricola )

Sunflower Downy mildew ( Plasmopara helianthii ), Sunflower rust (Puccinia

Clover Alfalfa weevil ( Hypera variabilis ), Clover dodder ( Cuscuta spp. )