Designing Competency-Based TEFL for S1 Strudents

to Foster Professionalism

Suwarsih Madya

State University of Yogyakarta

4 August 2003

Abstract

Being competent to communicate in English is one of the basic needs of all S1 graduates who want to reach a high standard of professionalism upon completing their S1 study programs. In the course of their study towards graduation, they have to wo

rk hard to develop their prospective profession-related competencies, of which one is their English competency, so that they are ready to answer the challenges of this information and communication technology era with its rapid changes. They certainly differ in their learning needs due to their discipline background and characteristics. But for sure they have to develop themselves as first degree holder candidates in the context of implementing the reform programs in this beloved country. The type of English they need to learn is English for Academic Purposes. How should an EAP course for them be designed to help them grow and develop into autonomous lifelong learners so that they are ready to professionally develop themselves? This paper tries to answer this single question.

A. Introduction

This paper has been written in response to the request from the Organizing Committee of the NUESP National Conference which is aimed at obtaining all kinds of input for the competency-based EFL teaching to the S1 students to foster their prospective professionalism. In this context, we can see at least three important points: the S1 students as the target audience, the aim of the intended EFL teaching, and S1 students’ developing professionalism. To be able to design a relevant EFL course for these students, we have to identify their characteristics, especially in relation to their developing professionalism in different yet related contexts—the national and international. Such characteristics will be the most important input for designing the intended course, which emphasizes the development of English competencies to support the development of their professional competencies. This paper tries to offer a model of designing such a course, with emphasis on the development of the students’ EAP (English for Academic Purposes). The discussion, however, will start with the contexts in which the EAP teaching will be carried out.

B. Today’s Contexts of EFL Teaching and Learning

1. The Global Context

It is worthwhile to remind ourselves of the characteristics of the 21st century as the largest environment of our English teaching. In this global environment, we witness changes occurring at an accelerating speed due to the advancement of information and communication technology. It is true that this global environment is full of challenges but it also offers us a lot of chances to strive for the best. This global environment is very competitive, which requires us to have a high level of competitiveness. Let us now see the characteristics of this era and possible problems to be encountered.

Today’s technological society has its own characteristics due to the advancement of science and technology. Mulkeen and Tetenbaum (1987), as cited by Lange(1990), state that: (1) The twenty-first century is knowledge-based; (2) The twenty-first century witnesses an increased information flow; (3) The twenty-first century witnesses rapid change and impermanence; (4) The twenty-first century witnesses an increase in decentralization of organization, institutions, and systems; (5) The twenty-first century is people-oriented; (6) The twenty-first century witnesses major demographic shifts. Among the implications of these characteristics as identified by Lange (1990), the relevant ones for purposes of our discussion are concerned the shift from the teacher-centred to the learner-centred approach, lifelong learning, autonomous learner, autonomous teachers, and the needs for minority students. We have also been reminded that our education in this global era should have the following pillars (Delors, 1997): learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be.

Since the globalization draws people together through information and communication technology, individuals’ and groups’ existence is at stake due to various conflicts which create various tensions. The following are the seven tensions to be overcome by all people in the 21st century (Delors, 1997): (1) the tension between the global and the local; (2) the tension between the universal and the individual; (3) the tension between the tradition and modernity, (4) the tension between long-term and short-term considerations; (5) the tension between, on the one hand, the need for competition, and on the other, the concern for equality of opportunity; (6) the tension between the extraordinary expansion of knowledge and human beings’ capacity to assimilate it; and (7) the tension between the spiritual and the material. In fact, all of the above tensions can already be observed in our country. Delors (1997) makes a suggestion that, for lifelong education to be effective, three forces should be reconciled: competition, which provides incentives; co-operation, which gives strength; and solidarity, which unites, and this should as far as possible be integrated into all learning activities.

2. The National Context

The promulgation of Education Act No. 20 of 2003 will provide a new context for education in general and for the teaching of English in particular. In the formulation of the function and goal of national education (Article 3), the desired Indonesian people are said to possess the following characteristics: believe in and are pious One Only God; possess exalted morality; are healthy, knowledgeable, skilled, creative, autonomous; and become democratic and responsible citizens. Among these characteristics, being autonomous probably has the greatest implication for the whole process of education.

The application of the six principles of providing education as stipulated in Article 4 will indeed require reform in all aspects of educational practices. For purposes of this paper, principles (3) and (4) have been translated as follows:

(3) Pendidikan diselenggarakan sebagai suatu proses pembudayaan dan pemberdayaan peserta didik yang berlangsung sepanjang hayat.

(Education is provided as an acculturating and empowering process for the educates which lasts the whole life.)

(4) Pendidikan diselenggarakan dengan memberi keteladanan, membangun kemauan, dan mengembangkan kreativitas peserta didik dalam proses pembelajaran.

(Education is provided by providing model behaviours, arousing motivation, and developing creativity of the educates in learning processes).

Principle (3) requires the application of a learner-centred approach, learner empowerment, and lifelong learning. This is consistent with what is implied by the characteristics of this century as mentioned above. Principle (4) implies flexibility in treating learners. The focus varies with learners’ learning needs. A group of learners might need more modeling than others, while another group more encouragement, and still another more freedom for their creativity.

One article closely related to the teaching and learning of English is Article 33, which states that a foreign language can be used as a medium of instruction in a certain educational unit to support the learners’ competence in the foreign language concerned. This certainly has important implications for the design of their English learning.

As stipulated in Article 24 of Education Act No. 20 of 2003, higher learning institutions have full academic autonomy and management autonomy. They can design their own curricula and translate these curricula into programs and further into courses, though the four pillars of education mentioned above should seriously considered in developing the curriculum to ensure the development of learners’ comprehensive competencies—spiritual, logic, aesthetic, ethic, kinesthetic, social. It is hoped that the results of higher education can be reflected in the daily life behaviours of the people concerned.

3. The ELT Situations

Four types of ELT situations can be identified (Dudley-Evans and John, 1998). Situation 1 is found in English speaking countries, Situation 2 in countries where English is used mainly for education purposes, Situation 3 in countries where English is used as a medium of instruction in certain subjects, and Situation 4 in countries in which English is used as an auxiliary language. In Situation 1, learners come from another country to study in a foreign system; for them both general and academic cultures may be different; everything around them operates in English (e.g. UK, USA, Australia). In this type of situation, the environment is very rich in English input, which will facilitate the EL acquisition process. In situation 2, education at all levels has been mainly in English; the civil service uses English, but people mostly use their first language (L1) in everyday life (e.g. Singapore, the Philippines, Zimbabwe). Though the environment in this situation is not as rich as that in Situation 1, the use of English outside schools still helps a great deal those learning it. In Situation 3, in tertiary education some subjects are taught in L1, but others, such as medicine, engineering and science, are taught in English (e.g. Jordan). In this situation English input is relatively limited. The last is situation 4, in which almost all subjects at all levels of education is taught in L1; English is an auxiliary language. (e.g. Brazil, China, and Indonesia). This situation exposes very little English to learners.

If we want to ensure the success of our English teaching, we have to consider the situation in which we teach it. That is, except in the English Department situation, we all teach in Situation 4 where we have to work hard to ensure that our students have adequate input for the process of acquiring this global language. The use of English as the medium of communication in the teaching and learning processes will optimize English exposure, which will certainly support the effectiveness of English teaching and learning.

C. The Target Learners’ English Learning Needs in the Context of their Prospective Professions

For purposes of our discussion, we can identify the target learners and their English learning needs, particularly in the context of their prospective professions. In this case, the target learners are university students doing first degree programs in different disciplines related to their prospective professions. One common ground is that these students are required to acquire, use and develop knowledge in their own disciplines. This requirement can be fulfilled through various academic activities, which can be carried in Indonesia. In this global era in which English has been recognized as the global language (Crystal, 1997), however. they will be truly professional if they can carry out all the academic activities in English regardless of whether they study in Indonesia or abroad. In the context of our discussion, this means that they need to develop academic English competencies, of which the core is the ability to communicate academically in English in various academic situations, both orally and in written form. In other words, they are required to possess their academic communicative English language ability.

According to Bachman (1990), communicative language ability consists of the following competences: (a) organizational competence, which is divided further into grammatical competence (vocabulary, morphology, syntax, phonology/graphology) and textual competence (cohesion and rhetorical organization), and (b) pragmatic competence, which is further divided into illocutionary competence (ideational functions, heuristic functions, manipulative functions, imaginative functions) and sociolinguistic competence (sensitivity to dialects, to registers, to naturalness, and to cultural references and figures of speech). For practical purposes of our discussion, however, we can ask “What skills are needed by these learners to be able to function in English in academic life?”

University students who want to go international to compete with other global academic citizens as true professionals should acquire the study skills mentioned in Figures 1 and remapped in Figure 2 presented below. The study skills are required of students in the following situations (Jordan, 1997): (1) lecture/talks, (2) seminar/tutorials/ discussions/supervisions, (3) practicals/laboratory work/field work, (4) private study/reading, (5) reference materials/library use, (6) essays/reports/ projects/case studies/dissertations/theses/,(7) research (linked with 3-6); and (8) examinations (written and oral). With such study skills at their disposal, they are fully ready to keep up with developments in their fields of study. Keeping up with the existing developments is one of the competencies required of any professional. Certainly they also need to acquire English language skills for social purposes, but this will can be designed separately. For purposes of determining the course content, we can go further to identify the notions and functions of English used in the above situations. We can refer to Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983), Wilkins (1976), and van Ek (1976) for information on notions and functions. General notions refer to universal linguistic phenomena such as time, space, quantity, motion, case, matters, and deixis, which are, in Wilkins’ (1976) terms, semantico-grammatical categories, while specific notions to “the structural and vocabulary items which would be found within the general categories and which are needed to complete or to clarify and complete functional expressions of language (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983: 32).

Living in this ever-changing society, these learners need to develop themselves in the course of their study as autonomous learners. Referring to Benson (2001), an

Study Skills

Study Situation/Activity

Study Skills Needed

1. lectures/talks

1 listening and understanding

2 note-taking

3 asking questions for: repetition, clarification and information

2. seminars/tutorials/discussions/

supervisions

1 listening and note-taking

2 asking questions – as above

3 answering questions; explaining

4 agreeing and disagreeing; stating points of view; giving reasons; interrupting

5 speaking with(out) notes; giving a paper/oral presentation, initiating comments, responding; verbalizing data

3. practicals/lab work/field work

1 understanding instructions” written and spoken, formal and informal

2 asking questions; requesting help

3 recording results

4. private study/reading (journals & books)

1. reading efficiently: comprehension and speed

2. scanning and skimming; evaluating

3. understanding and analysing data (graphs, diagrams, etc.)

4. note-making; arranging notes in hierarchy of importance

5. summarizing and paraphrasing

5. reference skills/library use

research and reference skills:

1. using the contents/index pages

2. using a dictionary efficiently

3. understanding classification systems

4. using a library catalogue (subject/author) on cards, microface, computer

5. finding information quickly (general reference works & bibliography

6. collating information

6. essays/reports/projects/case

studies/dissertations/theses/

research paper/articles

1. planning, writing drafts, revising

2. summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing

3. continuous writing in an academic style, organized appropriately

4. using quotations, footnotes, bibliography

5. finding and analysing evidence; using data appropriately

7. research,(linked with 3-6 above

1. conducting interviews

2. designing questionnaires

3. undertaking surveys

8. examinations:

a) written

1. preparing for exams (techniques)

2. revision

3. understanding questions/instructions

4. writing quickly: pressure of time

b) oral

1. answering questions: explicitly, precisely

2. explaining, describing, justifying

Skills generally applicable

1 organizing study time, i.e. time management

2 logical thinking: constructing arguments – use of cohesive markers and connectives; recognizing weaknesses and bias in arguments; balance; critical analysis

3 accuracy

4 memory: recall; mnemonics

5 using computers/word processors

Figure 1: Situations and Study Skills Needed

(Adapted from Jordan, 1997: 7-8)

autonomous learner possesses “autonomy” or the capacity to take charge of his/her own learning which has been seen as “a natural product of the practice of self-directed learning, or learning in which the objectives, progress and evaluation of learning are determined by the learners themselves.” (p. 8). Synthesizing existing literature, Arnold (1999: 144) defines learner autonomy “as a capacity to take control of one’s own learning in the service of one’s perceived needs and aspirations”. In concrete terms, learner autonomy as a capacity refers to the domain-specific knowledge and skills necessary to: (1) make choices of what, why and how to learn, (2) to implement the plan and (3) to evaluate the outcome of learning. In more concrete terms, it is worthwhile to refer to Dickinson (1993, in Tudor, 1996: 20) who states that autonomous learners are believed to have the following characteristics:

1. they understand what is being taught (in the case of language learning, for example, they have sufficient understanding of language learning to understand the purpose of pedagogical choices;

Can we demand that university students in Indonesia be already fully autonomous? Certainly not, especially if we consider the context of our secondary educational practices in which most of the teachers tend to be dominant due to their traditional cultural background. To borrow Riley and Zoppis’ (1987) term, during their university study S1 students would probably be at the stage of possessing “semi-autonomy”, with the intention of reaching the stage of “full autonomy” upon the completion of their study. Our duty is to help them develop themselves to become full autonomous learners so that they are ready to be lifelong learners as required by the global era touched upon above. All of this has implications for the approach to teaching them.

D. The EAP Teaching-Learning Approach

What approach would be appropriate for teaching S1 students of different disciplines? Since we want them to be competent in communicating in English in academic situations, the communicative EAP (English for Academic Purposes) approach seems to be the appropriate one to be applied. In relation to this, it seems worthwhile to consider to application of the five principles of communicative methodology.

Each of the principles of communicative methodology as proposed by Morrow (1981) can be summarized as follows:

a. Know what you are doing: Every lesson should end with the learner being able to see clearly that he can do something which he could not do at the beginning—and that the ’something’ is communicatively useful, in this context in academic settings.

b. The whole is more than the sum of the parts: ‘… a crucial feature of a communicative method will be that it operates with stretches of language above the sentence level, and operates with real language in real situations.’ This is concerned with types of academic texts relevant for students.

c. The processes are as important as the forms: The aim is to replicate as far as possible the processes of communication. The three processes are as follows:

1) Information gap: the purpose of communication in real life is to bridge the gap. The ‘concept of information gap seems to be one of the most fundamental in the whole area of communicative teaching.

2) Choice: ‘another crucial characteristic of communication is that the participants have choice, both in terms of what they will say and, more particularly, how they will say it .... Deciding on these under the severe time pressure which language use involves is one of the main problems which foreign users of a language face.’

3) Feedback: in the interactive nature of communication, a receiver’s reaction is in fact the feedback for the sender, which will determine the sender’s further communication act, which can be a feedback for the receiver. Without feedback, there will be no true communication.

d. To learn, do it: Although the teacher can help, advise and teach, only the learners can learn: they must, therefore, become involved in the activities and learn by doing things with the target language, in this case in academic situations.

e. Mistakes are not always a mistake: With the aim of developing the communicative ability of the students, it may be necessary to be flexible enough to treat different things as ‘mistakes’ at different stages in the learning process; in other words, not every error should be corrected. (See Brown, 2001, for a model of error treatment).

Note that to the process or technique of ‘the information gap’, Hutchingson and Waters (1987) have added other types of ‘gap’: media, reasoning, memory, jigsaw, opinion, and certainty.

In relation to this, Johnson (1982) has proposed five principles of a communicative exercise typology which are essentially based on problem-solving and task-orientation. Here are his illustration with several examples:

1. information transfer (e.g. reading information to extract data in order to fill in a form);

2. information gap (e.g. information is known only by one student in a pair and it can be conveyed by different exercises to the other student);

3. jigsaw (an example of cooperative learning in which each member of a small group has a piece of information needed to complete a group task;

4. task dependency (the principle by which a second task can only be done if the first task has been successfully completed, e.g. listening to, or reading, something and then using the information to produce something, e.g. a report, be it oral or written);

5. correction for content (the principle argues that ‘at some stage the student’s language production should be judged on its communicative efficacy in relation to a specific task’; an example of this is the pair work technique ‘Describe and Draw’, in which one student describes an illustration, diagram, etc. to his/her partner and the partner tries to reproduce the item from the description and questioning.

Discussing ESP exercise typology, Coffey (1984), as quoted by Jordan (1997: 113) maintains that the main consideration

Must be that of authenticity. All ESP work is in essence a simulation of a real-life task…. Serendipity is therefore one of the main virtues required [of the ESP writer]: the ability to find an authentic text that will fit pedagogic needs.

To Coffey, role-play, self-directed learning, and team-teaching are also very important.

To ensure the success of developing the students’ competences in academic English, we need to consider EAP methodological principles. Phillips (1981) has proposed four essential principles for teaching ESP:

1. reality control: control of the difficulty of the task demanded of the ESP students is exercised by means of the procedures of simplification appropriate to the field of activity constituting their special purpose.

2. Non-triviality: the learning tasks required of the students must be … perceived by the students as meaningfully generated by their special purpose.

3. Authenticity: the language that the students acquire through following the ESP course … must be the language naturally generated by their special purpose.

4. Tolerance of error: errors of content and of formal adequacy are to be judged as unacceptable only to the extent that they entail errors of communicative adequacy.

It will also be useful to consider the nine fundamental principles of learning as proposed by Hutchingson’s (1988, in Jordan, 1997: 110), which are as follows:

In relation to no. 7, Hutchingson, as quoted by Jordan (1997: 110), says that “the good teacher will try to minimize the negative effects of the learner’s emotional reactions to learning and will instead try to boost the positive emotions”. This might involve: (a) using pair and group work to minimize the stress of speaking in front of the whole class; (b) structuring tasks as to enable learners to show what they do know rather than what they do not; (c) giving learners time to think and work our answers; (e) putting more emphasis on the process of getting the answer rather than the product of the right answer; and (f) making interest, fun and variety primary considerations in the design of tasks and activities, not just an added bonus.

To make learning more effective, we should bear in mind that “motivation ‘indicates the inseparability of the cognitive and affective sides of the learner’ as it is initiated by the learner first wanting to think about learning something.

Learner-centredness is now believed to be the promising approach to helping improve learning effectiveness. According to Campbell and Kryszewska in Tudor (1996: 14-15), this approach has the advantages in the following aspects: (1) the potential of the learner, (2) constant needs analysis, (3) topicality, (4) previous learning experience, (5) learners as authors, (6) pace, (7) the element of surprise, (8) peer teaching and correction, (9) group solidarity.

Categories of learner-based activity include the following (Tudor, 1996 citing Campbell and Kryszewska, 1992 and Deller, 1990):

Besides, the learner-centred approach is also believed to help develop learner autonomy. As mentioned above, university students should learn to develop themselves as autonomous learners.

To help develop the learners’ autonomy, and as required by the learner-centred approach, the teacher should consider their characteristics: previous language learning experiences, cognitive styles (right-left brain functioning; field-independent/dependent; deductive-inductive), and personality factors (anxiety, tolerance of ambiguity, empathy, risk-taking, inhibition, self-esteem, motivation) (See Brown, 2000, for information on cognitive styles and personality factors). Of the personality factors, some overlap with elements of emotional intelligence, which, according to (Goleman, 1995), has the following components: self-awareness and impulse control, persistence, zeal, self-motivation, empathy, and social deftness. The concept of emotional intelligence is preceded by a theory of multiple intelligences (linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal) proposed by Gardner (1983/1994). We can see the overlapping of the emotional and multi intelligence.

Special attention should also be paid to the development of learners’ capacity to learn, which can support the development of their autonomy. The seven key elements of learning capacity as identified by Brazelton as quoted by Sells and Mouton (1997) are: (1) confidence, (2) curiosity, (3) intentionality, (4) self-control, (5) relatedness, (6) capacity to communicate, and (7) cooperativeness.

The learner-centred approach subscribes to a humanistic view of learning. Stevick (1990) in Tudor, 1996: 4) recognizes the following five main strands in humanistic thinking (labeled as H1-H5):

2. Social relations, which encourages friendship and cooperation, and opposes whatever tends to reduce them;

3. Responsibility, which accepts the need for public scrutiny, criticism, and correction, and disapproves of whoever or whatever denies their importance;

4. Intellect, including knowledge, reason, and understanding. This aspect fights against whatever interferes with the free exercise of the mind, and is suspicious of anything that cannot be tested intellectually;

5. Self-actualization, the quest for full realization of one’s own deepest true qualities. This aspect believes that since conformity leads to enslavement, the pursuit of uniqueness brings about liberation.

When applied in language teaching, humanistic thinking seems to be promising for empowering the learners. This is certainly congruent with what is happening in our country where demand for empowerment of people is rising.

E. Designing a Competency-Based EAP Course

To arrive at an appropriate design of an EAP course for S1 students, the following framework of thinking will be followed. The requirements of both the global and national contexts would form part of the basic considerations. This is followed by the characteristics of the target learners, combined with their professional need for EAP. These would further determine the teaching and learning approach to EAP. This framework is illustrated in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Framework of Thinking in Designing EAP Courses for S1 Students

1. Identify learners’ needs through a need analysis. In this case, the following aspects should be the main object of analysis: the students’ characteristics (personality traits, cognitive variations, learning motivation), the characteristics of the students’ disciplines, the students’ immediate learning environment (class size, existing equipment and facilities), and the students’ learning level.

2. Determine course goal or formulate exit competencies. The course goal and objectives should be derived integratively from the goal of national education, the goal of the university, and the goal of the department in which the students learn. The requirements of the global world should also be considered.

3. Identify the notions and functions of each discipline in the framework of the study skills to be acquired in the academic situations. The study skills mentioned in Figures 1 and 2 can be referred to. (The list of general and specific notions together with the structures used should be presented in the appendix of the course outline.)

4. Formulate levels of competencies by considering exit competencies and levels of complexity of notions and functions. It is possible that common ground notions and functions can be found, while variations of notions and functions might occur among courses for different groups of students. The notions and functions up to the intermediate, as already be listed by van Ek (1976) might be shared among the S1 students as the bridging course.

5. Find as many authentic materials as possible as input texts. Authentic materials will be ideal materials for the EAP course. These materials should taken from different sources—textbooks, journals, research reports, papers, editorials, articles, news, letters, advertisements.

6. Design learning tasks to support the acquisition of the intended competencies or study skills in the time allotted for the course. Nunan’s (1988) model of communicative tasks can be referred to. A task, according to Nunan, has the following components: goal (desired competency, input text 9either authentic or adapted), activities (simulations, role plays, case studies, independent study, group work), teacher role (facilitator, helper, manager, partner), learner role (partner, role players, observer, presenter), setting (individual, pair, or group work).

7. Determine the learning units and their sequence. A learning unit should contain the intended competencies, the situations in which the competencies are performed, the notions and functions to be learned, the input texts to be used, and the learning tasks for students. These units should be sequenced, while still allowing some change to be made as occasion demands.

8. Formulate indicators of EAP performance to be assessed. Indicators of students’ EAP performance should clearly stated. These would be assessed through test and non-test as well as self-assessment techniques.

Figure 4 : Steps in Designing an EAP Course for S1 Students of Different Disciplines

The principles of communicative and EAP methodology should be presented in the syllabus. In addition, the teachers should be reminded of the importance of helping their students to develop their learning autonomy.

F. Closing Remarks

To ensure that the English course supports the development of the S1 Students’ professionalism, it should be designed based on the students’ learning needs identified in relation to their characteristics (personally factors, cognitive variations, motivation), the requirements posed by layers of contexts-global and national, and the characteristics of their disciplines. Based on the students’ needs, exit competencies can be formulated, nations and functions identified, levels of competencies formulated, texts found, learning tasks designed, and units organized. Finally, performance indicators should be formulated to facilitate the assessment of student learning progress and achievemnts. Along these, the development of students into autonomous learners should colour every decision made in designing and implementing the EAP course.

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Receptive Skills		Productive Skills
LECTURE SEMINAR TUTORIAL	Listening (and Note-taking) Understanding & discriminating 1 main v. secondary ideas 2 relationship between ideas 3 fact v. opinion 4 idea v. example and so on Plus use of conventional abbreviations	SEMINAR TUTORIAL	SPEAKING (with(out) notes) a) Initiating (e.g. presenting a seminar paper): 1 introduce and conclude 2 present body of material, i.e. describe, define, exemplify, classify, assume, hypothesize, compare, advise, express, caution, summarize, paraphrase, etc. b) Initiating and responding ( e.g. as a member of a group contributing to a seminar discussion): Many of the item in 2 above PLUS: agree, disagree formulate questions, disagree, interrupt, apologize, etc.

PRIVATE STUDY	READING (and note-taking) a) Intensive b) Skimming c) Scanning Understanding and discrimination: 1 main v. secondary ideas 2 relationship between ideas 3 fact v. opinion 4 idea v. example and so on Plus use of conventional abbreviations	ESSAY REPORT DISSERTATION THESIS EXAM PRIVATE STUDY	WRITING (other than note-taking) a) General, i.e. introduce, conclude, summarize, paraphrase, etc. b) Specific Academic Concepts/ Functions e.g. describe, define, exemplify, classify, assume, express caution, etc.