British Settlement And Administration

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mineral rights from 
local chiefs. Later that year, the area that became Southern and 
Northern Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The 
British South Africa Company was chartered in 1889, and the 
settlement of Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was established in 
1890. In 1895, the territory was formally named Rhodesia after Cecil 
Rhodes under the British South Africa Company's administration.

Following the abrogation of the company's charter in 1923, Southern 
Rhodesia's white settlements were given the choice of being 
incorporated into the Union of South Africa or becoming a separate 
entity within the British Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, 
and Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the United Kingdom 
that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia was an internally self-governing colony 
with its own legislature, civil service, armed forces, and police. 
Although Rhodesia was never administered directly from London, the 
United Kingdom always retained the right to intervene in the affairs of 
the colony, particularly in matters affecting Africans.

After 1923, European immigrants concentrated in developing 
Rhodesia's rich mineral resources and agricultural potential. The 
settlers' demand for more land led in 1934 to the passage of the first of 
a series of land apportionment acts that reserved certain areas for 
Europeans.

In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined in a multiracial 
Central African Federation with the British protectorate of Northern 
Rhodesia and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and markets. 
Although the federation flourished economically, it was opposed by the 
African population who feared they would not be able to achieve self-
government with the federal structure dominated by White Southern 
Rhodesians. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963 after 
much crisis and turmoil, and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became 
the independent states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.

Unilateral Declaration Of Independence (UDI)

The European electorate in Rhodesia, however, showed little 
willingness to accede to African demands for increased political 
participation and progressively replaced more moderate party leaders. 
In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston Field, accused of not moving 
rapidly enough to obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was 
replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster Smith led his 
Rhodesian Front Party to an overwhelming victory in the 1965 
elections, winning all 50 of the first roll seats and demoralizing the 
more moderate European opposition.

Although prepared to grant independence to Rhodesia, the United 
Kingdom insisted that the authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate 
their intention to move toward eventual majority rule. Desiring to keep 
their dominant position, the white Rhodesians refused to give such 
assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy and unsuccessful 
negotiations with the British Government, Prime Minister Smith issued 
a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United 
Kingdom.

Post-UDI Events

The British government considered the UDI unconstitutional and 
illegal but made clear that it would not use force to the rebellion. On 
November 12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the Rhodesian 
government and UDI to be illegal and called on member states to 
refrain from assisting or recognizing the Smith regime. The British 
government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia and requested other 
nations to do the same.

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in 
this history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. 
Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were 
replaced on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, 
aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to 
Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted 
to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all 
trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and 
imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.

In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed 
between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. 
Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of 
power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to 
negotiate a peaceful settlement began to increase. In addition, sporadic 
antigovernment guerilla activity which began in the late 1960s, 
increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic 
dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major 
African nationalists groups-- the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union 
(ZAPU), and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which 
split away from ZAPU in 1963--were united into the "Patriotic Front" 
and combined their military forces, at least nominally.

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic 
hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority 
rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a UK-US 
diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to 
majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders 
to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the 
Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader 
Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former 
ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a 
basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of 
the black leaders to form a common political front.

On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put 
forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with 
pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the 
formation of an integrated army. Reactions were mixed, but no party 
rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978, the Smith 
administration signed the "internal settlement" agreement in Salisbury 
with Bishop Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. The 
agreement provided for qualified majority rule and elections with 
universal suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in which his 
UANC party won a majority, Bishop Muzorewa assumed office on 
June 1, becoming "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia's" first black prime minister. 
However, the installation of the new black majority government did not 
end the guerilla conflict that had claimed more than 20,000 lives since 
1972.

Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's conservative 
government took power in May 1979, the British began a new round of 
consultations that culminated in an agreement among the 
Commonwealth countries as the basis for fresh negotiations among the 
parties and the British involving a new constitution, free elections and 
independence.

The British and the African parties began deliberations on a Rhodesian 
settlement at Lancaster house in London on September 10, 1979. On 
December 10, 1979, in preparation for the transition under British 
authority to officially recognized independence, the "Zimbabwe-
Rhodesia" reverted de facto to colonial status. On December 12, British 
Governor Lord Christopher Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert 
British authority over the colony. His arrival signaled the end of the 
Rhodesian rebellion and the "internal settlement," as well as the 
beginning of Zimbabwe's transition to independence. The United 
Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions against Zimbabwe that day. 
The United States lifted sanctions effective December 16.

On December 21, after three months of hard bargaining, the parties 
signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a ceasefire, new 
elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new constitution 
implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The 
agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the 
country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the U.N. Security 
Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted 
unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.

During the transitions period, nine political parties campaigned for the 
February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were 
supervised by the British government and monitored by hundreds of 
observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing 
circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of 
the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU(PF) party won an absolute 
majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime 
Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of 
national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate 
socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various 
armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, 
and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. 
Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating 
ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, 
education, employment, and wages.

Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a non-aligned foreign 
policy while seeking assistance from all actions and would pursue a 
pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He noted that while 
Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and would support democratic change in 
South Africa, it would not provide bases for anti-South African 
guerillas.

The British government formally granted independence to Zimbabwe 
on April 18, 1980. Most nations recognized Zimbabwe following 
independence. The United States was to first nation to open an embassy 
in Salisbury on that day. Parliament convened for the first time on May 
13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member of the United Nations on 
August 25, 1980.

In seeking national reconciliation, Prime Minister Mugabe's first 
cabinet comprised members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent 
white members of parliament (MPs) and senators. The government 
embarked on an ambitious reconstruction and development program 
and instituted increases in minimum wages. Land redistribution 
proceeded under four experimental models on land that the government 
had purchased at market rates from willing sellers.

Zimbabwe Since Independence

Prime Minister Mugabe's policy of reconciliation was generally 
successful during the country's first two years of independence, as the 
former political and military opponents began to work together. 
Although additional blacks were hired to fill new places in the civil 
service, there was no retribution for those whites who had worked for 
the Smith regime. Smith and many of his associates held seats in the 
parliament where they participated freely in debates. Likewise, Joshua 
Nkomo, Mugabe's rival as leader of the nationalist forces, was included 
in the first cabinet along with several other members of PF-ZAPU.

Splits soon developed, however. In 1981, several MPs from Smith's 
party left to sit as "independents," signifying that they did not 
automatically accept his antigovernment posture. More importantly, 
government security officials discovered large caches of arms and 
ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and Nkomo and his 
followers were accused of plotting to overthrow Mugabe's government. 
Nkomo and his closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.

As a result of what they perceived as persecution of Nkomo (known as 
"Father Zimbabwe") and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, some of 
them deserters from the army, began a loosely organized and ill-
defined campaign of dissidence against the government. Centering 
primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were PF-ZAPU's 
main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987 and involved 
attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry 
aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and 
harassment of ZANU-PF members. Occasionally, some demanded the 
Nkomo and his colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More 
frequently, however, dissidents called for the return of farms and other 
properties seized from PF-ZAPU.

Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after 
independence and the continuing anti-government dissidence, the 
government kept in force a "state of emergency," which was first 
declared before UDI. This gave government authorities widespread 
powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the 
right to detain persons without charge.

In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland 
and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible 
reports surfaced of widespread violence and disregard for human rights 
by the security forces during these operations, and the level of political 
tension rose in the country as a result. Nkomo and his lieutenants 
repeatedly denied any connection with the dissidents and called for an 
all-party conference to discuss the political problems facing the 
country. In the 1985 elections, ZANU-PF increased its majority, 
holding 67 of the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PF-ZAPU agreed to unite 
in December 1987, and the parties formally merged in December 1989.

In October 1987, in accordance with the Lancaster House Accords, the 
constitution was amended to end the separate roll for white voters and 
to establish an executive presidency to replace the whites whose 
reserved seats had been abolished; among the new members were 15 
whites in the Senate and House of Assembly. Elections in March of 
1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his 
party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. However, voter turnout 
was only 54% and the campaign was not free and fair although the 
actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de facto one-party state, 
Mugabe called the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the 
creation of a de jure one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The 
state of emergency was lifted in July 1990. However, though control of 
the media, the huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the security 
forces, the government has managed to keep political opposition to 
minimum.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated and follows a policy of 
"active nonalignment". In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe 
usually adheres to positions established by the non-aligned movement, 
the organization of African Unity (OAU), or the commonwealth. 
Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the search for independence for 
Namibia (South-West Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as 
chairman of the Front-line States in southern AFRICA, Zimbabwe has 
spoken out vigorously against the policies of apartheid in South 
African and frequently called for the imposition of economic sanctions 
against Pretoria.

In November 1982, Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of 
the nonpermanent seats in the U.N. Security Council for the following 
two years, which brought it onto the center stage of world events and 
gave it much needed experience in international affairs. In 1986, 
Zimbabwe was the site of the Non-aligned Movement summit meeting; 
Prime Minister Mugabe became chairman of that organization, giving 
both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added international visibility and 
responsibility.

Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the United States, United Kingdom, 
Egypt, Angola, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, India, Sweden, France, China, 
Malaysia, Ethiopia, Namibia, Swaziland, Belgium, Tanzania, 
Botswana, the FRY, Mozambique, Switzerland, Cuba, Canada, Japan, 
Australia, Germany, India, Italy, Russia, and South Africa. Sixty-six 
countries are represented in Harare as are several international 
organizations including U.N. institutions, the European Economic 
Community, and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many 
international organizations including the International Monetary Fund 
(IMF); African Development Bank; the Commonwealth; Southern 
African Development Community (SADC); Preferential trade Area for 
Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific 
Countries (ACP, in association with the EU); Group of 77 (G-77); 
Group of 15 (G-15); Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); Organization of 
African Unity (OAU); Customs Cooperation Council (CCC); and the 
World Federation of Trade Unions.