5.1 Organic Molecules

    A. Definitions

        1. Most common elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
        2. These four elements constitute about 95% of your body weight.
        3. Chemistry of carbon allows the formation of an enormous variety of organic molecules.
        4. Organic molecules have carbon bonded to other atoms and determine structure and function of living things.
        5. Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon and hydrogen together; inorganic molecules (e.g., NaCl) can play
            important roles in living things.

    B. Carbon Skeletons and Functional Groups

        1. Carbon has four electrons in outer shell; bonds with up to four other atoms (usually H, O, N, or another C).
        2. Ability of carbon to bond to itself makes possible carbon chains and rings; these structures serve as the backbones
            of organic molecules.
        3. Functional groups are clusters of atoms with characteristic structure and functions.
            a. Polar molecules (with +/- charges) are attracted to water molecules and are hydrophilic.
            b. Nonpolar molecules are repelled by water and do not dissolve in water; these are hydrophobic.
            c. Hydrocarbon is hydrophobic except when it has an attached ionized functional group such as carboxyl (acid)
                (--COOH); then molecule is hydrophilic.
            d. Cells are 70-90% water; the degree organic molecules interact with water affects their function.
        4. Isomers are molecules with identical molecular formulas but differ in arrangement of their atoms
                (e.g., glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone).

    C. Building Polymers

        1. Four classes of polymers (polysaccharides, triglycerides, polypeptides, and nucleic acids)
            provide great diversity.
        2. Small organic molecules (e.g., monosaccharides, glycerol and fatty acid, amino acids, and nucleotides)
            serve as monomers, the subunits of polymers.

    D. Condensation and Hydrolysis

        1. Polymers are the large macromolecules composed of three to millions of monomer subunits.
        2. Polymers build by different bonding of different monomers; mechanism of joining and breaking
            these bonds is condensation and hydrolysis.
        3. Cellular enzymes carry out condensation and hydrolysis of polymers.
        4. During condensation synthesis, a water is removed (condensation) and a bond is made (synthesis).
            a. When two monomers join, a hydroxyl (--OH) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen
                is removed from the other.
            b. This produces the water given off during a condensation reaction.
        5. Hydrolysis reactions break down polymers in reverse of condensation; a hydroxyl (--OH) group from water
            attaches to one monomer and hydrogen (--H) attaches to the other.

5.2 Carbohydrates

    A. Monosaccharides and Disaccharides

        1. Monosaccharides are simple sugars with a carbon backbone of three to seven carbon atoms.
            a. Best known sugars have six carbons (hexoses).
                1) Glucose and fructose isomers have same formula (C6H12O6) but differ in structure.
                2) Glucose is commonly found in blood of animals; is immediate energy source to cells.
                3) Fructose is commonly found in fruit.
                4) Shape of molecules is very important in determining how they interact with one another.
        2. Ribose and deoxyribose are five-carbon sugars (pentoses); contribute to the backbones of RNA
            and DNA respectively.
        3. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides joined by condensation.
            a. Lactose is composed of galactose and glucose and is found in milk.
            b. Maltose is two glucose molecules; forms in digestive tract of humans during starch digestion.
            c. Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose and is transported within plants.

    B. Polysaccharides are chains of glucose molecules or modified glucose molecules (chitin).

        1. Starch is straight chain of glucose molecules with few side branches.
        2. Glycogen is highly branched polymer of glucose with many side branches; called "animal starch,"
            it is storage carbohydrate of animals.
        3. Cellulose is glucose bonded to form microfibrils; primary constituent of plant cell walls.
            a. Cotton is nearly pure cellulose.
            b. Cellulose is not easily digested due to the strong linkage between glucose molecules.
            c. Grazing animals can digest cellulose due to special stomachs and bacteria.
        4. Chitin is polymer of glucose with amino acid attached to each; it is primary constituent of crabs and
            related animals like lobsters and insects.

5.3 Lipids

    A. Lipids are varied in structure.

        1. Many are insoluble in water because they lack polar groups.
        2. Fat provides insulation and energy storage.
        3. Phospholipids from plasma membranes and steroids are important cell messengers.

    B. Fats and Oils

        1. A fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (acid) group at one end.
            a. Because the carboxyl group is a polar group, fatty acids are soluble in water.
            b. Most fatty acids in cells contain 16 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule.
            c. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between their carbon atoms.
            d. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds in the carbon chain where there are less than
                two hydrogens per carbon atom.
            e. Saturated animal fats are associated with circulatory disorders; plant oils can be substituted
                for animal fats in the diet.
        2. Glycerol is a water-soluble compound with three hydroxyl groups.
        3. Triglycerides are glycerol joined to three fatty acids by condensation.
        4. Fats are triglycerides containing saturated fatty acids (e.g., butter is solid at room temperature).
        5. Oils are triglycerides with unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., corn oil is liquid at room temperature).
        6. Animals use fat rather than glycogen for long-term energy storage; fat stores more energy.

    C. Waxes

        1. Waxes are a long-chain fatty acid bonded to a long-chain alcohol.
        2. Solid at room temperature, waxes have a high melting point and are waterproof and resist degradation.
        3. Waxes form a protective covering that retards water loss in plants, and maintains animal skin and fur.

    D. Phospholipids

        1. Phospholipids are like neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by phosphate group or a
            group with both phosphate and nitrogen.
        2. Phosphate group is the polar head; hydrocarbon chains become nonpolar tails.
        3. Phospholipids arrange themselves in a double layer in water, so the polar heads face outward
            toward water molecules and nonpolar tails face toward each other away from water molecules.
        4. This property enables them to form an interface or separation between two solution (e.g., the interior
            and exterior of a cell); the plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer.

    E. Steroids

        1. Steroids differ from neutral fats; steroids have a backbone of four fused carbon rings;
            vary according to attached functional groups.
        2. Functions vary due primarily to different attached functional groups.
        3. Cholesterol is a part of an animal cell’s membrane and a precursor of other steroids, including
            aldosterone and sex hormones.
        4. Testosterone is the male sex hormone.

5.4 Proteins

    A. Protein Functions

        1. Support proteins include keratin, which makes up hair and nails, and collagenfibers, which support many organs.
        2. Enzymes are proteins that act as organic catalysts to speed chemical reactions within cells.
        3. Transport functions include channel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane and hemoglobin
            that carries oxygen in red blood cells.
        4. Defense functions include antibodies that prevent infection.
        5. Hormones include insulin that regulates glucose content of blood.
        6. Motion is provided by myosin and actin proteins that make up the bulk of muscle.

    B. Amino Acids

        1. All amino acids contain an acidic group (---COOH) and an amino group (--NH2).
        2. Amino acids differ in nature of R group, ranging from single hydrogen to complicated ring compounds.
        3. R group of amino acid cysteine ends with a sulfhydryl (--SH) that serves to connect one chain of amino
            acids to another by a disulfide bond (--S—S).
        4. There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in cells.

    C. Peptides

        1. Peptide bond is a covalent bond between amino acids in a peptide.
        2. Atoms of a peptide bond share electrons unevenly (oxygen is more electronegative than nitrogen).
        3. Polarity of the peptide bond permits hydrogen bonding between parts of a polypeptide.
        4. A peptide is two or more amino acids joined together.
        5. Polypeptides are chains of many amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
            a. Protein may contain more than one polypeptide chain; it can have large numbers of amino acids.

    D. Levels of Protein Structure

        1. Shape of a protein determines function of the protein in the organism.
        2. Primary structure is sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
            a. Frederick Sanger determined first protein sequence, with hormone insulin, in 1953.
            b. First broke insulin into fragments and determined amino acid sequence of fragments.
            c. Then determined sequence of the fragments themselves.
            d. Required ten years research; modern automated sequencers analyze sequences in hours.
            e. Since amino acids differ by R group, proteins differ by a particular sequence of the R groups.
        3. Secondary structure results when a polypeptide takes a particular shape.
            a. The alpha helix was the first pattern discovered by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey.
                1) In peptide bonds oxygen is partially negative, hydrogen is partially positive.
                2) This allows hydrogen bonding between the C=O of one amino acid and the N—H of another.
                3) Hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid holds spiral shape of an alpha helix.
                4) Alpha helices covalently bonded by disulfide (--S—S--) linkages between two cysteine amino acids.
            b. The beta sheet was the second pattern discovered.
                1) Pleated beta sheet polypeptides turn back upon themselves; hydrogen bonding occurs between
                    extended lengths.
                2) Beta-keratin includes keratin of feathers, hooves, claws, beaks, scales, and horns; silk also is protein
                    with beta sheet secondary structure.
        4. Tertiary structure results when proteins of secondary structure are folded, due to various interactions
            between the R groups of their constituent amino acids.
        5. Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptides combine.
            a. Hemoglobin is globular protein with a quaternary structure of four polypeptides.
            b. Most enzymes have a quaternary structure.

    E. Denaturation of Proteins

        1. Both temperature and pH can change polypeptide shape.
            a. Examples: heating egg white causes albumin to congeal; adding acid to milk causes curdling.
            b. When such proteins lose their normal configuration, the protein is denatured.
            c. Once a protein loses its normal shape, it cannot perform its usual function.
        2. The sequence of amino acids therefore causes the protein’s final shape.

5.5 Nucleic Acids

    A. Nucleic Acid Functions

        1. Nucleic acids are huge polymers of nucleotides with very specific functions in cells.
        2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the nucleic acid whose nucleotide sequence stores the genetic
            code for its own replication and for the sequence of amino acids in proteins.
        3. RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid that translates the genetic code of DNA
            into the amino acid sequence of proteins
        4. Nucleotides have metabolic functions in cells.
            a. Coenzymes are molecules which facilitate enzymatic reactions.
            b. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide used to supply energy.
            c. Nucleotides also serve as nucleic acid monomers.

    B. Structure of DNA and RNA

        1. Nucleotides are a molecular complex of three types of molecules: a phosphate (phosphoric acid),
            a pentose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.
        2. DNA and RNA differ in the following ways:
            a. Nucleotides of DNA contain deoxyribose sugar; nucleotides of RNA contain ribose.
            b. In RNA, the base uracil occurs instead of the base thymine, as in DNA.
            c. DNA is double-stranded with complementary base pairing; RNA is single-stranded.
                1) Complementary base pairing occurs where two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen
                    bonds between purine and pyrimidine bases.
                2) The number of purine bases always equals the number of pyrimidine bases.
            d.Two strands of DNA twist to form a double helix; RNA generally does not form helices.

    C. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

        1. ATP is a nucleotide of adenosine composed of ribose and adenine.
        2. Derives its name from three phosphates attached to the five-carbon portion of the molecule.
        3. ATP is a high-energy molecule because the last two unstable phosphate bonds are easily broken.
        4. Usually in cells, a terminal phosphate bond is hydrolyzed, leaving ADP (adenosine diphosphate).
        5. ATP is used in cells to supply energy for energy-requiring processes (e.g., synthetic reactions);
           whenever a cell carries out an activity or builds molecules it "spends" ATP.