Inconsistencies in
Maxwell’s equations :
It has been demonstrated , earlier in this article , that the wave-particle duality of the photon had been deduced , not from direct observations of the photon , but from observation of unrelated phenomenon arising out of the necessity for explaining how atoms could exist. Today that necessity no longer exists , or at least the necessity no longer exists at such a fundamental level . The possibility therefore is present that a more rigorous examination of the properties of the photon will yield evidence that the photon has all along been just what it seems , namely the symbiosis of a particle and a wave.
The key to a better understanding of the photon
lies in re-examining the related phenomenon of electricity . It is an
amazing but irrefutable fact that Maxwell’s
theory of electromagnetic radiation is based upon a false premise. The
whole theory of electromagnetic radiation was
founded on the observation of how an electric current behaved
within a capacitor . It was observed
that an electrical current was established in
what to all purposes was an open circuit. Maxwell made the deduction
that this flow of current was due to a displacement current , and was thereby
said to have cut the Gordian knot , a logical corollary to this was that
electromagnetic waves could travel
through space. Thus Maxwell treated current flow through a capacitor as being
different to the flow of current in a circuit : { Maxwell, Article
610: "One of the chief peculiarities
of this treatise is the doctrine which asserts, that the true electric current, I, that on which the electromagnetic
phenomena depend, is not the same thing as i,
the current of conduction, but...
I = i + dD/dt (Equation of True Currents)." } The premise was that the field
around a capacitor was an electric field , this premise has since found to be
false . The reason that this statement is so strongly worded is that a simple
experiment can be carried out to verify the validity of the statement. Two
metal strips are placed side by side , separated by a small distance on a non
conducting surface and strongly charged
with opposing polarities. When the plates are
isolated , a field is found to exist around the plates ( i.e
to all purposes a capacitor )
which is indistinguishable from an electromagnetic field , iron filings
sprinkled on the non-conducting surface on which the plates have been
positioned , arrange themselves along the lines of force between the two
plates and compass needles are
deflected in the direction of the lines of force. Consider now what happens when the plates are moved further apart
, the iron filings no longer align themselves along the lines of force and the
compass needle does not undergo
deflection. What conclusions are to be drawn from this ? Do we conclude that
the field around the plates is an electromagnetic field when the plates are
close together and an electric field when they are further apart ? Or do we
conclude that a strong charge results in the formation of an electromagnetic
field and that a weak charge results in an electrical field ? The only
conclusion that can safely be drawn from this experiment is that there are no
electric monopoles and hence no electric fields. In either case the answers are irrelevant here , because Maxwell
based his conclusions on the premise that the field around a capacitor was an
electric field. In the light of the new information that the field around a
capacitor is an electromagnetic field , it is obvious that Maxwell’s theories
were based upon a false premise and that in reality there is no displacement
current and that the current flow
through the dielectric of a charging and discharging capacitor is no different
than the current flow in a normal
circuit.
This
discrimination between the type of energy inside an electrical conductor and
outside it in the form of electromagnetic fields is one of the major barriers
to reaching a fully comprehensive theory of electrical conduction. It has been
suggested , and experimentally supported that Maxwell's original equation
: I = i + dD/dt Could be
replaced by : I = i = dD/dt (
with the proviso that symbol D = E x electric constant). (Catt,
Davidson, Walton)
In this equation, there
is an "=" sign whereas in Maxwell's equation there is a "+"
sign. This says it all. In other words, Maxwell treats wire electricity (i)
as being different to the current flow I
in the vacuum dielectric of a charging or discharging capacitor (dD/dt),
whereas the simple experiment outlined above
proves that there is no distinction for pulses of electromagnetic energy
in wires and for that flowing in the vacuum dielectric of a capacitor .
Hence , Maxwell is mathematically
wrong.
In the photoelectric effect Maxwell's wave theory predicts that as the intensity of light is increased, the current flow should also increase. The frequency should not affect the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. In reality the intensity of the light has nothing to do with photo-electric emission and it is only the frequency of the incident light which has any effect.
Maxwell
confirmed that electromagnetic waves are generated by accelerating electric
charges. Consequently, there developed a theory for the emission of light as
being due to the oscillatory motion of electric charges located in the atoms of
the radiating source.
Today we know that in fact the emission of light is due to electrons gaining and losing energy and not as was thought due to their rotation around the nucleus. While it is admitted that light is emitted by electrons changing their energy levels , electromagnetic radiation of lower frequency such as radio-waves is still attributed to the oscillatory motion of ions and electrons in the crystal lattice of the conductor. So what we have in effect is two causative factors for what is essentially the same phenomenon , electromagnetic radiation
There also exist several
discrepancies in the quantum mechanics model for the flow of electrical energy
in a conductor. For instance according to quantum mechanics
there are no fields as such , therefore by the classical view electrical
phenomenon was described as electron ® field ® electron and by the quantum view as electron ® photon ®
electron .(i.e the quantum view is that
all electromagnetic phenomenon are mediated by photons.). Yet the quantum
explanation for the flow of energy in an electrical conductor , based on a
simple perturbation theory , is essentially a field theory . Hence an electron
is moved by the difference of potential established across the ends of the
conductor , this creates a disturbance in the electric field within the
conductor which is conveyed to the next
electron and so on , the process moving through the conductor at speeds near to
the speed of light. This explanation is essentially at odds with the quantum
mechanics axiom which states that all
interactions between electrons are mediated by
photons. However , according to
the Pauli exclusion principle , photons are barred from the electrical conduction
process and therefore cannot take part in interactions between electrons in the
conductor. This leaves two choices for the conduction of electrical energy ,
the first being that the energy is conducted through “virtual” photons , which
is mathematically impossible , the
second being that the energy is conducted via electrons which is physically
impossible since the drift velocity
of electrons in a conductor in which a current is flowing is on the
order of fractions of
a centimetre per second , while the electrical energy in a conductor is
seen to establish itself at the speed of light , or 3 x 10 8m/sec: ( i.e 10-2mm/sec ).
Calculations showing the drift
velocity of an electron in a conductor carrying a current:
The current density is the quantity
of electricity flowing each second across one square centimetre of the
conductor , so that according to the
definition :
e = 4.6 x 10 –10 cgs esu , 
- 1023 cm-1.
We assume that a current with density 1A/cm2
is flowing through the conductor . Transforming this into electrostatic
units i.e 1A = 3 x 10 9 cgs esu . We find that
. Which is
one thousandth of a centimeter per second approx!