Gravity:

                                  Gravity is the long range force  which holds together solar systems , galaxies and Universes.  Gravity  is one of the two types of interaction known to Classical Physics , the other force being that of electromagnetism. The phenomenon of Gravity has proved to be an enigma to scientists and has never been adequately explained , Einstein puzzled over the problem but was  unable to reach a solution he was comfortable with.  The great English physicist Sir Isaac Newton explained the effects of gravity but admitted that the actual working of gravity remained unexplainable. Newton’s thesis was that the same force which pulls things downwards towards the earth was also responsible for keeping the moon in orbit around the earth and the earth and other planets in orbit around the sun. Using , mathematics which he had specially formulated for the problem he calculated the various movements of the moon and the planets and then compared his results with those of astronomers and found an astonishing degree of agreement between his own calculations and actual observations. His conclusion, states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle. With a force whose direction is that of the joining of the two, and whose magnitude is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance from each other.

Gravity has an identical strength (or force) throughout the universe, the difference in gravity is only dependent on the volumes and proximity of the masses affected. Newton calculated the value of the universal constant for gravity (G) by estimating the mass of the Earth. Using the calculation of Earth’s mass and it’s, radius he deduced the value of G.

G=gr_g²/M_g

This comes numerically close to the accepted value of G, 6.7X10^-8(cm)²/(gm)(cm)² which Lord Henry Cavendish first measured in the laboratory. More accurate measurements of G have become available and these calculations and experiments are now only of historical relevance. In some references the figure for this constant may appear differently, for example G = 6.67310X10^-11 M³ kg ^-1S^-2, but this is due to the use of different parameters. In this example, we have the mass cubed and measured in kilograms, but the constant is the same.

Newton’s theories and calculations are still valid and provide a reliable basis for calculating gravitational forces despite the advances made by Einstein. In his General Theory of Relativity (1915), Einstein conceived that the presence of mass so modifies space-time that there is no need to invoke (as Newton did) a gravitational force between objects. Einstein’s theory is supported by variations in the orbits of planets, which deviate from paths predicted by Newton’s theory. Einstein’s theory also predicted the bending of light waves by a massive object, owing to the object's effect on local space-time. The predicted bending of starlight was detected during an eclipse in 1919.    Newton’s summing up of the mystery of  how and why gravity worked as it did still holds good today:

“That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else , by and through which their action maybe conveyed from one to another , is to me so great an absurdity that , I believe , no man who has in philosophic matters a competent facility of thinking could ever fall into it.”       

  In short the phenomenon known as  action at a distance could be described but it could not be explained.

On the other hand  with regard to the General Theory of Relativity .It becomes increasingly obvious that General Relativity must be reduced to the status of a fascinating concept and possibly useful tool: it must ultimately be rejected because the idea of mass distorting space-time does not work on the small scale (Einstein never pretended that it did) and on the large scale it may not be exactly correct  and it certainly, in practice, inhibits our ideas through its daunting complexity. The idea of forces being propagated via vibrating particles must be rejected because it does not help us understand how they work, whereas, the “Aumic” Theory  based on an aether concept has considerably more chance. Moreover, such a theory would represent, in one sense, an enormous simplification, because, as Lorentz  put it:

“We can hardly admit that one and the same medium is capable of transmitting two or more actions by wholly different mechanisms, [so] all forces may be regarded as connected more or less intimately with those which we study in electromagnetism.”

 

 The “Aumic” Theory described herein does in fact offer a solution to the problem of gravity which fits almost all of the known phenomenon associated with the subject and serves to both explain and accurately calculate all gravitational phenomenon as they are at present known.

Using the  electromagnetic force as a benchmark and assigning it the value one (1), we can compare the relative strengths of the electromagnetic force and the gravitational force.

Force Relative Strength:

Electromagnetic 1

Gravitational 10^-39

                 This can be verified as follows by expressing  Newton’s law quoted earlier in a the form :

                                             F_(g)=Gmm¹/d²

(Equation 1.)

Where F_(g) is the gravitational force, G is the universal gravitational constant, m is the mass of one particle and m¹ the mass of the other, d is the distance between the centres of gravity of the two masses. The gravitational force of an object will draw toward a point that is at the centre of the mass, for example the Earth’s centre of gravity is in it’s core and not on the surface. Everything that is on the Earth is drawn toward the centre of gravity and not to some random point elsewhere on the planet.

 Newton’s formula can be used to calculate the strength of the gravitational force between two isolated masses in the universe. Ignoring all other influences and assuming the objects are in a vacuum and unaffected by radiation or other forces. All measurements are calibrated  in grams and centimetres  and the strength of the gravitational force will be determined  in dynes. A dyne is a measure of the amount of energy required to give a mass of one gram an acceleration of one centimetre per second per second, this is  a force equal to about 2.248 X 10^-6 pound (0.000002248lb.).

We will consider the gravitational  force between a proton and an electron when  at a distance of 1 centimetre from each other. The mass of a proton is 1.7 X 10^-24gm and the mass of an electron is 9.1 X 10^-28. Placing these in to equation 1, multiplying by the universal gravitational constant (6.67 X 10^-8) and dividing by the distance (1 cm) squared. We can ascertain the gravitational force between the particles.

F_(g)=6.67 X 10^-8 X 1.7 X 10^-24 X 9.1 X 10^-28 / 1²

Therefore; F_(g) = 1 X 10^-58 dynes

A similar method for determining the intensity of electromagnetic force developed by the French physicist C. A. de Coulomb (1736-1806) can be utilized to obtain the electromagnetic strength in dynes between the two objects.

F_(e) = qq¹ / d²

(Equation 3.)

In this equation, the electric charges (measured in electrostatic units) are represented by q and q¹ and the distance apart in centimetres is d. If the objects are in a vacuum this equation will apply without adjustment. A proton and an electron have identical charges of opposite polarity each being 4.8 X 10^-10 electrostatic units. The electromagnetic force between a proton and an electron one centimetre apart will be;

F_(e) = 4.8 X 10^-10 X 4.8 X 10^-10 /1²

Therefore; F_(e) = 2.3 X 10^-19 dynes

(Equation 4.)

We have now calculated the intensity of both electromagnetic force and gravitational force in dynes, which will enable us to obtain a comparison. By dividing the electromagnetic force by the gravitational force ( F_(e) / F_(g) ) we can establish the ratio of their relative strengths.

2.3 X 10^-19 dynes / 1 X 10^-58 dynes = 2.3 X 10^-39

The huge discrepancy between the respective strengths of the electromagnetic force and the gravitational force on the order of 10 ³⁹  gives the first hint as to where gravitational force might originate.  Forces on the order of 10 ^–39  electromagnetic units have hitherto only been found in “virtual” interactions. It is therefore a fair assumption that gravitational forces actually originate in “virtual “ interactions.

Observation of the Lamb shift which manifests itself in the spectrum of the Hydrogen atom and  subsequent investigation of this phenomenon  has shown  that  electrons within an atom are constantly emitting and re-absorbing “virtual “ photons. It follows that activity involving  the emission and absorption of photons  by electrons in atoms increases with the complexity of the atoms.  This means that there is an empirical increase in the number of “virtual” photons which are exchanged in atoms which is proportional to their complexity. This activity may be visualized as gradually increasing in strength from the “virtual interaction” activity present in an atom of Hydrogen  , which is the simplest atom possessing only one electron  in its orbit , and progressing up the Mendelev table towards the heaviest of elements , possessing multiple electrons. The degree of “virtual interactions “ taking place  is therefore directly dependent upon the Density of  a given substance.

It is interesting to note that the  gravitational force also increases in an exactly similar manner. For instance a given  volume of Platinum exerts a greater gravitational force than the same volume  of Carbon which in turn exerts a greater force than a similar volume of Hydrogen and so on.  From this it might be concluded that the gravitational force of  any substance is directly proportional to the number of “virtual” interactions which are occurring within it , a greater number of “virtual” interactions resulting in a larger gravitational force than does a lesser number of “virtual” interactions .

How do these “virtual “ interactions contribute towards the gravitational force ? The answer must be that the gravitational force as manifested makes itself apparent through means of the “virtual photon sea “ which permeates the entire Universe. As long as the substance is isolated, in the sense that there are no objects in its vicinity , the electromagnetic field due to the “virtual” interactions taking place in the substance remain neutral or unaligned. If however another substance is introduced at any point in its vicinity , the two volumes of substance immediately begin to interact via the alignment of the photons of the  “virtual photon “ sea and start to exert an attractive force on each other. The amount of attraction which is exerted in this way is directly dependent on the gravitational mass  and  volume of the substances involved in this interaction ,  and of course the distance between the two substances.  Yet this force is not due to an imbalance of charge such as might arise from an excess of electrons  , it is essentially a neutral force , resulting from the fact that electromagnetic forces experience an attraction to each other.

One of the phenomenon associated with  gravity is the fact that the gravitational force  exerts an equal attraction on bodies of different mass. For instance , leaving out wind resistance and other factors for the moment , an iron ball weighing one kilogram and a tennis ball weighing fifty grams would both ,  when dropped from an equal height , reach the surface of the earth at the same time. The New Theory of Gravity outlined herein explains this by the fact that  an equal and proportional retarding  force is exerted , through the medium of the “virtual photon sea “  on the two objects. Thus the iron ball will experience a greater pull away from the earth  proportionally than the tennis ball , resulting in both of the objects falling together to the earth at the same speed.   Thus the Theory of Gravity outlined herein accounts both for Gravitational mass of objects as well as for Inertial mass of objects.

    When dealing with a radiating body it must be assumed that the gravitational  force  is slightly stronger than in the case of non-radiating bodies , this is compensated for by the pressure of the radiation , which in the case of light from the sun has a value of about 4.5 x 10 ^–6 N which is slightly less than that of the  force of gravity . The forces involved must also naturally include the effect of unequal heating of surfaces.  In any event what must be borne in mind when dealing with such weak interactions is that any calculations which are made when dealing with vast masses and very weak forces  are of necessity only approximate but are nevertheless accurate enough when dealing with macroscopic objects.

 To explain how the conclusion is reached that the force of gravity between radiating bodies is higher than that of non-radiating bodies  we can take the hypothetical case of a single photon emitted by the sun . The real photon emitted by the sun  causes the “virtual “ photons in its direction of propagation to align themselves in the direction of propagation of the real photon and the energy of the real photon is passed along this line of virtual photons , and also to a certain degree the energy of the real photon is spread laterally to adjacent “virtual “ photons. This means that the electromagnetic forces involved are somewhat  greater than result from “virtual photon “ interactions , resulting in greater gravitational forces being generated which however are compensated by the factors above noted.

            It has been noted from observations that the gravitational force is so weak that not only does it produce no measurable effect within the atom but It also has no effect on chemical reactions due to changes in the electron shells. This is completely in keeping with the  New Theory of Gravity , since gravity  according to this theory is thought to originate in “virtual “ activity taking place within atoms and would therefore not have any tangible effect on the atom itself.  Electromagnetic force and gravitational force decrease slowly as the square of the distance, which enables them to produce effects at great distances. The Electromagnetic force is powerful holding atoms and molecules together but as it consists of two different polarities, which balance with each other, there is almost no surplus electromagnetic force to affect other matter at a distance. By contrast the forces of gravity , though tiny ,being uncompensated , have huge effects , the power of  gravity being responsible for holding of the moon in its orbit around the earth and the earth itself in orbit around the sun and for the building of  Galaxies and Universes.  

              In conclusion it can be stated that gravitational force exists due to the presence of  “virtual photons “ which are constantly being emitted and absorbed by every atom present in a body , the degree of “Virtual photon “ activity in a body is directly related to the density of the body and is associated to the amount of gravitational force the body generates. When two objects are present they interact through the “virtual photon sea “  the  virtual photons of the sea  , which are normally oriented at random , aligning themselves with the two bodies emitting “virtual photons” and so resulting in the force of attraction between the two bodies that we know of as gravity.  Radiating bodies such as the sun also result in the same type of alignment of virtual photons between the two bodies ,  in this case the resultant gravitational force  between the two bodies is actually stronger because the electromagnetic field between the two objects is stronger , however this is exactly compensated for by the pressure of the resulting radiation with the result that the gravitational force remains unchanged and constant. It is therefore the alignment of the “virtual photon” field between two objects that results in the tiny uncompensated force which we know of as gravity.

 

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