THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA

PROSLOGION:

ANSELM’S PROOFS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD

By

Nathan D. March

Dr. Kevin White

PHIL 354 History of Medieval Philosophy

16 April 2003

Anselm’s Proslogion contains his famous “ontological proof” for the existence of God: that God exists and that he cannot be thought not to exist.  As a philosophical proof it has inspired thought not only in his time, but also in the generations that followed including the present day.  Charles J. Kelly’s article, “Circularity and Amphiboly in Some Anselmian Ontological Proofs: A Syllogistic Inquiry,” from the Nous journal (1994) is an example of how modern philosophers continue to examine, understand, and critique his argument.

Historical Context

The division of the empire, following the death of Charlemagne in 814, contributed to instability and violence, that hampered the progressive momentum of the Carolingian renaissance, making intellectual life difficult in the ninth and tenth centuries.  Otto I reunified the empire in 962 and brought some measure of stability to western Europe.[1] This stability encouraged the rebirth of monasticism and influenced a reform culture that sought to correct the abuses in religious life that had arisen during the previous centuries. 

Armand Maurer, in his book Medieval Philosophy, characterizes the reform movement as considering philosophy a compromising influence in the Christian life.[2]  Peter Damian (1007-1072), whose attitude was typical of “certain devout spirits in the Middle Ages,” was skeptical of philosophy and considered that, “Jesus Christ has spoken, and his saving Word should not be adulterated by curious speculation.”[3]  The reformers emphasized monasticism and the Church Fathers over Plato and Aristotle.  Maurer remarks, “the suspicion toward philosophy shown by Peter Damian and others in the eleventh century was not without provocation.”[4] In contrast to the reformers, individuals such as Berenger of Tours (1000-1088) exalted reason above revelation.  Considering reason to be the best guide in the pursuit of truth, he went so far as to submit the mysteries of faith to human logic and consequently denied transubstantiation.[5]

Into this mix of extreme positions Anselm (1033-1109) was born in the northern town of Aosta, Italy.[6] Educated by the Benedictines, in 1059 he entered the Abbey of Bec.[7] From 1063 to 1093 he served the monks as a teacher, prior and later as abbot.[8] During this time, he wrote the Proslogion.  Like Augustine before him, Anselm attempted to reconcile faith and reason without subordinating Scripture to reason or renouncing the primacy of faith.[9]  Maurer comments that, “St. Anselm stands out as having the best-balanced mind among his contemporaries.”[10] Amidst the great controversies in his day, between faith and reason, Anselm constitutes the high water mark of reason.[11]

Anselm sought “necessary reasons,” as the fulfillment of religious faith.[12]  Although, he did not think one could comprehend the mysteries of faith completely in this life he was confident in the mind to give necessary reasons for them.[13]  As Maurer remarks, “He thus combines a humble attitude of belief in Scripture with an almost unbounded optimism in the ability of reason to demonstrate its truths.”[14] 

The proofs for the existence of God contained in the Proslogion, Maurer continues, “rest upon a certain conception of knowledge and truth.”[15]  Reminiscent of Augustine he holds the universe to be governed by truth and that truth leads to God who is subsistent Truth.[16] For Anselm, the truth of propositions is founded upon the truth of thought, the truth of thought upon the truth of created things, the truth of created things upon the divine Ideas, which are one with God.[17]

In the Proslogion, Anselm aims at a single self-contained proof, simpler than the more Platonic Monologion written as a model meditation at the request of his fellow monks. The resulting twenty-six-chapter work, he remarks, is the “fruit of long meditation and prayer.”[18]  It is an altogether new idea, redolent of Augustine’s interior path to wisdom.[19]  Anselm seeks God in faith and love, aspiring to understand what he already believes.[20] The Proslogion is a kind of “map of a mystical journey of the mind to God.”[21]

Proslogion

The first four chapters of the Proslogion are included in Hyman and Walsh’s anthology, Philosophy in the Middle Ages.  The first chapter entitled, “A rousing of the mind to the contemplation of God,” prepares the reader for the proceeding proofs by means of entering into prayer.  In the second chapter, Anselm presents his arguments for the claim that God truly exists.  The third chapter argues that God not only exists but that God cannot be thought not to exist.  The fourth chapter, contained in the anthology, entitled “How ‘the Fool said in his heart’ what cannot be thought,” concludes that whoever understands correctly cannot even conceive that God is not.  Concerning chapters II and III, Hyman and Walsh note, “there has been controversy over the alleged difference between the arguments.”[22] 

Chapter II – That God Truly Exists

Anselm begins his argument by summarizing the problem. He states that he believes God exist and furthermore, he exists, as he believes him to exist.[23] He defines God as, “that than which nothing greater can be thought”.[24] (For the sake of clarity, let the phrase “that than which nothing greater can be thought,” be abbreviated “That-T”.)  Next, considering the fool’s position, that there is no God, he questions if such a nature as “That-T” does not exist.

To prove “That-T” exists he starts the argument by noting when the fool hears “That-T” he understands what he hears.[25]  Moreover, when he understands he understands in his mind, even if he does not understand “That-T” to exist in reality.[26] He proposes that if “That-T” can exist in the mind alone then it can be thought to exist in reality as well, since to exist in reality would be greater than to exist in the mind alone.  Otherwise, “That-T” would not be greater, something else would be greater, and “That-T” would not be “That-T”, impossibility according to the principle of non-contradiction.  Therefore, “That-T”, exists in both the mind and reality.[27]

Chapter III – That God Cannot Be Thought Not to Exist

In the third chapter, Anselm claims that “That-T” so truly exists that it cannot be even thought to not exist.[28] He proposes that something that can be thought to exist and cannot not exist is greater than that which can be thought not to exist.[29]  Therefore, if “That-T” does not exist, then “That-T” would not be greater than something that can be thought to exist and not exist.  Therefore, “That-T” would not be “That-T” and this Anselm remarks is an absurd conclusion.[30]  He finishes the chapter by addressing God, “You, Lord our God, are this being [That-T].  You exist so truly, Lord my God, that You cannot even be thought not to exist.”[31]

Charles J. Kelly Article

Charles J. Kelly in his article, “Circularity and Amphiboly in Some Anselmian Ontological Proofs: A Syllogistic Inquiry,” notes treatments of Anselm’s proofs for the existence of God have probed their formal structures in various ways, such as Hartshorne’s modal prepositional logic.[32] He suggests the Aristotelian syllogistic provides a unique perspective on the diverse contemporary efforts to treat Anselm’s Proslogion proofs.[33]

Exposure to Aristotle would have been limited in the eleventh century. Kelly holds Anselm had familiarity with basic modal concepts and the rules governing both categorical and hypothetical syllogisms through knowledge of Boethius’ Categoriae and De Interpretatione.[34]  He cites De Grammatico as proof of Anselm’s deftness at developing and discussing syllogisms.[35]  He advocates laying out the Proslogion arguments in the syllogistic patterns Anselm would have implicitly recognized.[36]  Since, it is a precise and effective instrument for capturing the nuances and varieties of deductive reasoning, he argues an appropriately developed syllogistic provides a clear account of the circularity and multiplicity of meanings in Anselm’s proofs.[37]  

Kelly explores the proofs by first elaborating on the power of syllogisms and the problem of inference.[38] He discusses at length the fourfold ambiguity of the word ‘that’ in syllogistic inference in light of Wittgenstein.[39]  He considers the charge of circularity in the proofs with respect to the usage of ‘that’ in the definition of God and concludes, “any circularity in the argument of Proslogion II must be found elsewhere, it is not located in the place where Anselm introduces his name for God.”[40]  He then evaluates, using syllogistic theory, the proofs from chapters II and III. Kelly finds circularity in the reductio of Proslogion II. He notes the dependence of Proslogion III on the previously determined circular reasoning of Proslogion II.[41] Highlighting the proposition, that the concept of God is not contradictory, he concludes a potential fallacy of amphiboly is only avoided at the cost of circularity.[42]

His conclusion, that the success of Anselm’s reductio depends on the circular positing of ‘[That-T](exists in reality)’ as a necessarily true premise, is consistent with Maurer’s summary of Anselm’s notion of Truth.  Since, truth is rectitude and the truth of propositions is founded on God’s existence, to deny the “very existence is to go counter to the very ‘rectitude’ of the notion, which is guaranteed by its Idea in God’s mind; that is, by God himself.”[43] Although, Kelly’s article is detailed, and his individual points are difficult to succinctly encapsulate, it serves to at least demonstrate modern philosophical interest in the Proslogion of Anselm.

Bibliography

Maurer, Armand A. Medieval Philosophy. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1982.

Hyman, Arthur, and James J. Walsh. Philosophy in the Middle Ages. 2d ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1973.

Kelly, Charles J. “Circularity and Amphiboly in Some Anselmian Ontological Proofs: A Syllogistic Inquiry.” Nous, December 1994.