VARIOUS APPROACHES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING

As one of the four skills writing has always occupied an important part of syllabus and course design. It is seen as an integral part of any ESL, TESOL, ESP or any other English syllabus. Research in the teaching and learning of the English language has produced various approaches and methodologies. To make a distinction an approach can be defined as a theoretical and general view of how language ought to be taught. Whereas a method is a developed procedure, or technique of teaching. Approach therefore provides a basis for method and method in turn is guided by approach. This paper will discuss the various approaches in the development of writing in the context of teaching English to native speakers and teaching English as a second language. This paper will also discuss in brief methodologies that have been developed as a result of the approaches that will be discussed.

Development of Native English Speaker Writing
Before the times of Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby the teaching of English followed a very rigid reading and writing approach. There was almost no place for the teaching of listening and speaking skills. The content material for teaching was usually based on literature. In schools, colleges and universities apart from the study of grammar students were required to read literature text and write based on the contents of the text. According to Bizzell and Herzberg (1987:3) the idea of the course was "to introduce students to literary study and in the process to correct the writing in students' literary essays according to long established standards of grammatical, stylistic, and formal correctness." According to Joy Reid(1993:1) English teachers "designed, assigned and evaluated" their students writings or "products" based on the quality and style of writing. Teachers made no effort to teach students the how of writing. All writing was done by the students on their own without teacher intervention. On the whole the approach was prescriptive and viewed writing as a linear, orderly process.
Harold Palmer and A.S Hornby advocated a new model of language teaching which stressed speech primacy. Their approach was collectively known as the Oral Approach. At the heart of this approach was the explicit teaching of grammar, vocabulary and reading.(Richards & Rodgers. 1986:33) Writing was not thought of as an important skill or subject to be taught separately. Listening, speaking and reading were thought to be natural precursors to effective writing.
The importance of teaching writing as a skill was not realized until a paradigm shift in the writing movement was initiated by researchers such as Maxine Hairston, Peter Elbow and Donald Murray. The traditionalist approaches to writing gave way to new advancements in the world of literacy education and social development. In the context of writing instruction traditional approaches were found to be inadequate in addressing new writing problems which were beginning to emerge. Trends in literacy education were also changing towards a student centred approach. Furthermore the introduction of information communication technologies and computer based word processing programmes lead to new methods of composing and editing. In line with this new developments the approach advocated by Hairston focussed on the writing process rather than the product. Writing became a purposeful activity and a journey of invention and discovery for the student. Joy Reid(1993:2) accurately summarises the changes involved in the new approach as follows:
1. an overall focus on the process rather than on the
product of writing
2. concentration by classroom teachers on the composing
processes rather than on literary discussions.
3. focus on the writer, and on the relationship between
reader and writer.
4. interest in research on writing processes and
classroom teaching; and
5. commitment to the idea that teaching effective, successful
writing is possible.
As a result of this new approach, writing was given it's due recognition in syllabus and course design. Further research resulted in the teaching of writing strategies to students in schools, colleges and universities. Writing as an important discipline was offered and studied in universities at the post graduate level. It also became an integral part of teacher education courses. Two important schools of thought in the development of writing were the Expressive School and the Cognitive School.

The Expressive School
Joy Reid(1993:4) says that the teachers of "...expressive writing focussed on sincerity, integrity, spontaneity and originality in composition classrooms."
Among the proponents of expressive writing were Peter Elbow, Donald Murray, W.E.J. Coles, K. Macrorie and J.Moffett. Process writing is a methodology based on the tenets of the expressive school. The basic idea of the expressive school was to allow students to write freely without the constrains of grammar. The activity of idea and content generation as well as the proper sequencing of it were construed as more important than the final product. It was believed that during the process of writing students not only discover ideas but themselves as well. According to Zamel(1987:268) "Writing viewed from this perspective is the process of exploring one's thoughts and learning from the act of writing itself what these thoughts are." In terms of technique and idea generation, freewriting and brainstorming were important components of the discovery process. Freewriting is a strategy whereby students are encouraged to write freely, putting all their ideas on paper without the inhibition of grammar, cohesion and coherence. According to Sondra Pearl(1980:24) "Through the act of seeing their ideas on paper, students are enabled to reflect upon them and develop them further." The development of ideas entails a process of "rehearsing," "drafting," and "revising."(Murray, 1980:4) Hence writing is not merely an academic exercise but a wholistic learning process that motivates the writer with a sense of purpose.

The Cognitive School
Cognitivist viewed writing as the "process of expressing ideas in the printed symbols of a language."(Bruning. et. al. 1999:318) Cognitive research focussed on how thought and language are integrated in producing writing.
Various information processing models were developed to describe the process of writing. Among these are the model developed by Linda Flower and John Hayes. In reference to this model Bruning et. al(1999:318) describe writing as a problem solving activity involving long-term memory and working memory:
This model describes writing as a problem solving activity
involving three interconnecting components: task environment,
long-term memory and working memory. The major cognitive
process of writing - planning, translating and reviewing - occur
in working memory.
Cognitivist also believe that different writers display different ability levels such as the ability to manipulate information, generate ideas, plan and organize. Teachers need to create a supportive and nonthreatening environment in order for students to realize their full potential. Peer editing and conferencing are encouraged. In composition classrooms pre-writing strategies such as "brainstorming, freewriting, outlining, cubing and clustering" were encouraged.(Joy Reid,1993:5) Grammar is not taught explicitly and engaged as part of the editing and revising process as students engage in more meaningful activities.

Development of ESL Writing
In the last twenty-five years there have been significant changes in the teaching and learning of writing in the ESL/FL context. Emig's (1971) groundbreaking work on the composing processes opened a new door for writing. Zamel(1987:268) claims that "one of Emig's most important findings was that writing involved a continuing attempt to discover what it is one wanted to say." In place of traditional product analysis, researchers began to explore what goes on in individual writers' heads while composing as in the Flower & Hayes model discussed earlier. This, in turn, led to a shift in perspective from a view of writing as a linear process to a recognition of its recursive nature, involving pre-planning and revising as ongoing component activities.
Writing as a Process
Reflecting this view of writing as process, writing instruction in ESL/FL has gradually changed from the traditional teacher-directed, product-oriented practice to a more process-oriented approach. This theoretical emphasis on process-oriented writing instruction has, in general, brought about positive changes in teaching practice. Process-oriented writing instruction comes in many different forms and the number of teachers who put more emphasis on process-oriented instruction now outnumbers those who put focus on skill-based instruction. According to Shaugnessy(1977:79) "students tend to think that the point of writing is to get everything right the first time and that the need to change things is the work of the amateur." In light of this and other similar findings the principles of process writing include the notion of writing as a process of discovery, the importance of students engaging in planning, pre-writing, and revision to improve their texts, producing and working on multiple drafts, and the use of writing conferences. Nevertheless, although the emphasis on process writing has brought about significant, and mainly beneficial, changes in teachers' orientations to writing, some concerns have been expressed about the ways in which this approach is actually practised in schools. One of the criticisms has been that, despite the theoretical recognition of writing as a recursive process, it is still the case that, in many classrooms, writing continues to be presented as a linear sequence of planning, pre-writing, writing, revising and publishing. Nunan(1991:87) claims that:
...the process approach confines children largely to narrative forms and that this represents a serious limitation on their ability to master text types such as reports, expositions and arguments which are essential for academic success at school and beyond.
Process writing fails to prepare students for the more rigorous demands of writing examination essays and analytical studies. A second criticism has emerged from the focus on the social purposes of writing. In terms of literacy development, writing is closely linked to social development. The process movements' overemphasis on recursive writing leaves little room for writing in a social context.
Genre Based Writing
In reaction to the strongly cognitive emphasis in research on writing processes, there has been a growing emphasis on the different genres of writing, conceived as socially constructed, typical ways of responding to recurrent rhetorical situations. In place of the previous conception of writing as a single generic process, this work has led to a recognition that the different genres of writing required for different social-rhetorical purposes require different strategies to accomplish their goals. In this context, a criticism made of many 'process writing' classrooms is that students mostly engage in expressive writing, based on personal experience, and fail to develop strategies appropriate for other written genres, particularly those that are required for success in a higher level of education. As a result, greater emphasis is now being given to exploring ways in which the process-oriented approach can be more effectively integrated with instruction that takes account of the functions and forms of the genres that are important in school and society. At the heart of this genre-based approach is the belief that, in order to master the written genres of schooling, students need direct instruction. Genre forms should therefore be explicitly taught through the study of models, the learning of genre elements and their sequencing, and the collaborative then solo production of exemplars. According to Delpit (1988:67) proponents of this approach also argue that such explicit, teacher-directed pedagogy is particularly important for minority students for, they claim, it is through the explicit teaching of the socially powerful genres that the powerless and the disadvantaged in society will gain their rightful access to power (Martin, 1993:59). Genre-based pedagogy has not been without its critics, however. Much of the criticism has been centered on "the disjuncture between the claim that meaning is encapsulated in textual objects, genres as autonomous systems, and the avowal of a social constructionist functional model of language" (Freedman & Richardson, 1997, p.142). From a theoretical perspective, the objection is to the overemphasis on the formal features of genres and the consequent downplaying of the socially situated nature of writing, with its dynamic selection and deployment of a range of generic features to meet the demands of the particular rhetorical context. And from a pedagogical perspective, the objection is somewhat similar: Although in presenting the rationale for their approach, the advocates of genre-based pedagogy argue that text construction is embedded in, and responsive to, social context, in classroom practice the study and use of specific genres tends to be approached predominantly from a linguistic point of view; instead of genuine interest and communicative purpose being the basis for working with a particular genre, the genre is assigned by the teacher and students are instructed in the relevant linguistic features and then required to use them in the construction of their own written texts.
Communicative Approach
The communicative approach was developed in Britain in the 1970's. Among the basic tenets of this approach is the emphasis placed on authentic material, purposefulness, contextualized language and the individual learners needs. Language learning activities were modelled after the students needs to communicate in the real world. Based on this approach, in the writing classroom the was a need to strike a balance between the process of writing and the product. Joy Reid(1993:39) claims that communicative writing classes employ the following principles:
1. The use of students writing samples in textbooks and of peer review of essays that allow fellow students to read, evaluate, and learn from authentic responses to academic assignment.

2. The use of the ESL writing classroom to work on writing assignments from real academic classes, making the writing purposeful.

3. The integrating of skill-based classes in intensive language programs that allows students to write about what they speak and read about; this integration of skills gives students an authentic shared context for writing.

4. The focus on individual student needs by teachers who encourage discovery writing and student chosen writing topics.
Computer Assisted Language Learning.
Computer assisted language learning has in the past decade grown with the advancements in computer technology. Initially computers in the form of word processing programmes helped writers with the simple task of typing and editing. However lately many new programmes have been developed specifically with teaching writing in mind. Students find writing with the aid of computers to be fun. Software programmes which are designed or adapted to use in ESL writing prompts students to improve their composing and revising skills. The use of computers in the classroom as well as at home is set to break new territories in the field of writing "as teachers develop computer skills and greater understanding of the machine, and as they discover uses of the medium they could not have envisioned in their early encounters with the computer."(Dunkel, 1991:26)

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