The Old Regime
1. In the Old Regime France belonged to three classes. The First Estate, made up of the clergy.
2. The Second Estate was made up of the nobility.
3. Lastly, the Third Estate made up the vast majority of the population.
A Financial Crisis
1. The financial crisis was because of deficit spending, which is a government spending more money than it takes in.
2. The economy crumbled which added to the crisis; it began in the 1770s and in the 1780s bad harvests sent food prices soaring and brought hunger to poorer peasants and city dwellers.
3. The reform failed, heirs of Louis XIV could not come up with a good enough reform and it died.
The King Takes Action
1. Louis XVI summoned the Estates General to meet at Versailles in May 1789.
2. Louis created cahiers, or notebooks, which listed reforms for taxes, freedom of the press, or regular meetings of the Estates General.
3. The efforts of Louis had failed and the crisis deepened in early July.
Storming the Bastille
1. On July 14, Paris seized the spotlight from the National Assembly meeting in Versailles.
2. Crowds stormed the commander and killed him.
3. July 14 is now known as Bastille Day in France, it is a national holiday.
Revolts in Paris and the Provinces
1. The political crisis of 1789 was punctuated by the worst famine in memory.
2. A radical group named the Paris Commune replaced the royalist government of the city.
3. Paris was in turmoil.
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
1. On August 4th an all night meeting in the National Assembly voted to end their privileges.
2. In late August a first step toward writing a constitution occurred, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
3. Louis XVI was slow to accept the reforms of the National Assembly and anger turned into action � again.
Women March on Versailles
1. The crowd grew angry at the queen � Marie Antoinette. When she had married Louis people didn�t like her for being frivolous and extravagant.
2. The women wanted Louis to return with them to Paris, and he did.
3. The women of Paris would continue to take action during the revolution because their children asked them for the food they could not give them.
A Time of Reform
1. To pay off the huge government debt the Assembly voted to take over and sell Church lands.
2. Priests and bishops refused to accept the Civil Constitution and the pope condemned it.
3. Louis and his family tried to flee in a wagon disguised as different people, they were recognized and sent back to Paris � this showed that Louis did not support the revolution and this angered the people.
Reaction outside France
1. European rulers had increased the border patrols fearing that the French would come into their land.
2. When Louis� flee failed the king of Prussia and the emperor of Austria issued the Declaration of Pilnitz, where they threatened to intervene if necessary to protect the French monarchy.
3. The people of France took it seriously and prepared for war.
War at Home and Abroad
1. In October 1791 the newly elected Legislative Assembly took office.
2. In Paris and other cities, working-class men and women called sans-culottes, pushed the revolution into more radical action.
3. In April 1792 the war words between French revolutionaries and European monarchs moved onto the battlefield.
Downfall of the Monarchy
1. Battle disasters inflamed revolutionaries who thought the king was in league with the invaders.
2. The Convention put Louis XVI on trial as a traitor to France and was sentenced to death.
3. Louis was put to death in the public square in Paris in January of 1973. In October Marie Antoinette was also executed and their son Louis XVII died of unknown causes.
The Convention under Siege
1. By early 1793 danger threatened France on all sides.
2. To deal with the threats to France, the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety.
3. The 12 member committee had almost absolute power as it battled to save the revolution.
Reaction and the Directory
1. The revolution entered a third stage; moving away from the excesses of the Convention moderates produced another constitution � The Constitution of 1795.
2. This constitution set up a five-man Directory and a two-house legislature elected by male citizens.
3. Politicians turned to a popular military hero, Napoleon Bonaparte; they planned to use him to advance their own goals.
Women in the Revolution
1. Many women were disappointed when the Declaration of the Rights of Man did not grant equal citizenship to women.
2. As the revolution progressed, women�s right to express their views in public came under fire.
3. In 1793, a committee of the National Convention declared that women did not have �the moral and physical strength necessary to practice political rights.�
Changes in Daily Life
1. By 1799 the 10-year-old French Revolution had changed France.
2. Revolution and war gave people a strong sense of national identity; people felt more loyal to the queen and king now.
3. France had even changed in their arts. The arts of France changed to more of a classical style.
The Man from Corisca
1. Napoleon Bonaparte was born on the island of Corisca in the Mediterranean.
2. The moment the revolution broke out Napoleon was eager to become a famous name of France.
3. Napoleon accumulated enough power into his hands to take the title of Emperor of the French in a 2 year time period.
France under Napoleon
1. Napoleon began to restore prosperity by modernizing finance; he controlled prices, encouraged new industry, and built roads and canals.
2. One of Napoleon�s lasting reforms was called the Napoleonic Code; it embodied Enlightenment principles such as the equality of all citizens before the law, religious toleration, and advancement based on merit.
3. Women lost their newly gained rights when the Napoleonic Code was made.
Subduing an Empire
1. From 1804 to 1814 Napoleon increased his reputation on the battlefield. Napoleon became unstoppable when it came to war.
2. By 1810 the French Empire reached its greatest extent.
3. Napoleon annexed, or added outright, some areas to France including the Netherlands and Belgium and a few parts of Italy and Germany.
Challenges to Napoleon�s Empire
1. Although nationalism worked well with the military it did not do so much with the revolutionists.
2. In 1808 Napoleon replaced the king of Spain with his brother Joseph Bonaparte because of the resistance to foreign rule there.
3. Spanish patriots conducted guerrilla warfare against the French.
Downfall of Napoleon
1. An alliance between Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia went up against France, in 1813 they defeated Napoleon in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig and Napoleon stepped down from power.
2. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) was granted the king of France.
3. Napoleon returned because Louis� attempts to revive France failed and people returned loyalty to Napoleon.
The Congress of Vienna
1. The chief goal of the Vienna decision makers was to create a lasting peace by establishing a balance of power and protecting the system of monarchy.
2. Each of the leaders also pursued his own goals.
3. The aged diplomat Talleyrand shrewdly played the other leaders against one another to get defeated France accepted as an equal partner.
The Vienna Settlement
1. The Vienna statesmen achieved their immediate goals; however they failed to foresee how powerful new forces such as nationalism would shake the foundations of Europe.
2. In Germany a loosely organized German Confederation was created with Austria as its official head.
3. People inspired by revolutionary ideas condemned the Vienna settlement.
Chapter 23
First Steps
1. IN the early 1800s German speaking people lived in a host of small and medium sized states as well as in Prussia and the Austrian Hapsburg Empire.
2. Between 1807 and 1812, Napoleon made important territorial changes in the German speaking lands.
3. In the 1830s Prussia � Austria�s rival � took the lead in creating an economic union called the Zollverein.
Bismarck: Architect of German Unity
1. Otto von Bismarck succeeded where others had failed by becoming Prussia�s Junker class which was made up of landowning nobles.
2. Bismarck�s success was due in part to his strong will and his ability to manipulate others.
3. As chancellor, Bismarck moved first to build up the Prussian army.
Victory in Three Wars
1. In the next decade Bismarck led Prussia into three wars. Ever war increased Prussian power while paving the way for German unity.
2. In 1886 Bismarck came up with an idea to attack Austria and the war lasted seven weeks which ended in Prussian victory.
3. The victory had Napoleon III worried in France which led to a Franco-Prussian War of 1870.
The German Empire
1. Princes from the southern German states and North German Confederation agreed that William I of Prussia should become emperor.
2. A constitution was drafted by Bismarck set up a two-house legislature for the Second Reich.
3. Nationalists celebrated the new Second Reich, or empire.
The German Industrial Giant
1. By the late 1800s German chemical and electrical industries set the standard worldwide.
2. During the 1850s and 1860s Germans had found large companies and built many railroads.
3. German industrialists were the first to see the value of science in developing new products like synthetic chemicals and dyes.
The Iron Chancellor
1. Bismarck was called �The Iron Chancellor� because he had used the same methods to achieve unification.
2. After unification Catholics made up one third of German population.
3. Bismarck saw a threat to the new Germany in the growing power of socialism.
A Confident New Kaiser
1. In 1888 William II succeeded his grandfather as Kaiser; he was confident about his abilities.
2. William didn�t try to introduce democratic reforms because he felt that it was God who wanted him to rule.
3. William also launched a campaign to expand the German navy and win an overseas empire to rival Britain and France�s.
The Italian Peninsula
1. The Congress of Vienna ignored the demands of nationalists.
2. Nationalists created secret patriotic societies and focused their efforts on expelling Austrian forces from northern Italy.
3. In the 1830s the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini found Young Italy.
The Struggle for Italy
1. After 1848 leadership of the Italian nationalist movement passed to Sardinia.
2. In 1855 Sardinia joined Britain and France in the Crimean War against Russia with Cavour leading.
3. Garibaldi and his troops won control of Sicily and then crossed into the mainland north to Naples.
Trials of the New Nation
1. There were great regional differences between the people of Northern Italy and the people of Southern Italy.
2. In the late 1800s unrest increased as radicals on the left struggled against a conservative government
3. Anarchists were people trying to get rid of the government; they turned to sabotage and violence.
A Fading Power
1. In 1800 the Hapsburgs were the oldest ruling house in Europe.
2. Since the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian emperor Francis I and Metternich upheld conservative goals against liberal forces.
3. Austria could not hold back the changes that were engulfing Europe and by the 1840s factories were spring up and the Hapsburgs were facing familiar problems.
The Dual Monarchy
1. Austria�s defeat in the war with Prussia brought renewed pressure from the Hungarians.
2. Under the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary Austria and Hungary were separate states.
3. While Hungarians welcomed the compromise, other people resented it.
Balkan Nationalism
1. Like the Hapsburgs the Ottomans ruled a multinational empire
2. Nationalist stirrings became mixed up with the ambitions of the European powers.
3. By the early 1900s observers were referring to the region as the �Balkan powder keg� and the explosion was in 1914, set off by World War I.
The Russian Colossus
1. By 1800 Russia was not only the largest most populous nation in Europe, but it was also a huge world power.
2. Other European nations looked on the Russian colossus with wonder.
3. Masters exercised almost total power over their serfs.
Three Pillars of Russian Absolution
1. Czars had ruled with absolute power for a long time while imposing their will on their subjects.
2. When Alexander I died in 1825 a group of army officers led an uprising known as the Decembrist Revolt.
3. Nicholas realized that Russia needed to modernize.
Reforms of Alexander II
1. Alexander II came to the throne in 1855 during the Crimean War.
2. A widespread popular reaction followed and liberals demanded changes and students demonstrated for reform.
3. Alexander also set up a system of local government called zemstvos or elected assemblies.
Return to Reaction
1. Alexander�s reforms failed to satisfy many Russians.
2. In the 1870s some socialists carried the message of reform to the peasants.
3. Alexander III responded to his father�s assassination by reviving the harsh methods of Nicholas I.
Building Russian Industry
1. Under Alexander II and Nicholas II Russia entered an industrial age.
2. The drive to industrialize increased political and social problems.
3. Among the revolutionary ideas of the 1890s was Vladimir Ulyanov whose brother had been executed for trying to kill Alexander III.
The �Little Father� Betrays
1. As the crisis deepened an Orthodox priest named Father George Gapon organized a march for January 22, 1905.
2. The parade went through the streets of St. Petersburg toward the Winter Palace.
3. Fearing the marchers, the czar had fled the palace and called in soldiers to open fire, this day was known as �Bloody Sunday�.
The Revolution of 1905
1. At last the clamor grew so great that Nicholas was forced to announce sweeping reforms.
2. The manifesto won over moderates leaving socialists isolated.
3. Stolypin realized that Russia needed reform and not just repression.